World War-I

The 19th century marked the growing influence of the British Empire, Russian Empire, German Empire, the United States and the Empire of Japan. Along with the military conflicts, this century also is known for remarkable advances in the science and exploration, which became the foundation of the technological advances of the 20th century.

After the defeat of the French Empire and its allies in the Napoleonic wars, the British Empire became world’s leading power in the first half of the 19^th century. The rise of Germany under the Blood and Iron Policy of Bismarck changed the balance of power equations in Europe. At the same time, relatively peace was imposed in the oceans and seas of the world due to the so called Pax Britannica.

Pax Britannica

In the later part of the 19th century, British Empire became the world’s leading power and it controlled one quarter of the world’s population and one fifth of the total land area. Beginning 1815, it started imposing a so called British Peace on key maritime trade routes. The naval superiority of British was further enhanced by the divided and relatively weak continental Europe. Thus there was a presence of the Royal Navy on all of the world’s oceans and seas. This period between 1815 to 1914 is called Pax Britannica, whereby, there was a relatively peace in the ocean and seas of the world. However, Pax Britannica did not work on land, where the continental powers kept fighting.

Reasons for growth of Nationalistic Rivalries in 20^th century

Nationalism can serve as a unifying force within a country but it can also cause intense competition among the nations, because each one of them would seek to overpower the other. By the turn of the 20^th century, a fierce nationalistic rivalry had developed among the major powers of Europe viz. Germany, Austria-Hungary, Great Britain, Russia, Italy, and France. These nationalistic rivalries grew out of economical reasons, territorial disputes, Imperialism and militarism.

Economic Reasons

The economic reasons included the fierce competition for materials and market. Till 1850, Britain was a leader in industry, finance and navy but after that the rise of Germany posed a challenge to Britain’s power.

Territorial Disputes

The territorial disputes were another major reason for nationalistic rivaliries. For instance, France could not forget the loss of Alsace- Lorraine to Germany in the Franco-Prussian War (1870). The Austria-Hungary and Russia tried to dominate in the Balkans. Within the Balkans, there was intense nationalism of Serbs, Bulgarians, Romanians, and other ethnic groups, that led to demands for independence.

Imperialism

Another major force that set the stage for a great war in Europe was imperialism. The Europeans competed for colonies in Africa and Asia. As European countries continued to compete for overseas empires, their sense of rivalry and mistrust of one another deepened.

The Germany’s colonial empire was so much smaller than Britain’s. They wanted to expand it for many reasons. Britain had been building its empire since the 15th ­century, whereas Germany had only become a united nation in 1871, so it had had fewer opportunities to establish a large colonial empire.

Militarism

The increased nationalism led to a dangerous arms race. One of the major beliefs among the Europeans was that to be truly great, they needed a powerful army. Thus, almost every European nation had a powerful standing army. They adopted a policy Militarism, which refers to glorifying military power and keeping an army prepared for war.

Also, military experts stressed importance of being able to quickly mobilize troops in case of a war. Generals in each country developed plans for such a mobilization.

The Growth of Alliance System

As early as 1870s, Europe saw a growth of the alliance system which stemmed out of the growing rivalries between the Great Powers. The objective of alliance system was to foster peace, but eventually it pushed Europe to war.

The Triple Alliance of 1882

After the unification of the Germany, Bismarck declared Germany a satisfied power. But he saw threats in the form of French retaliations. So, his energy was focussed on the peace in Europe. One of the first steps to peace according to him was to isolate France, so that it remains without allies.

In 1879, Bismarck fostered an alliance between Germany and Austria Hungary. Three years down the line, Italy also joined it and it became the Triple Alliance.

Thus, the Triple Alliance (1882) was an alliance between Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy

The Policy of making alliances was full of contradictions. For example, after the Triple alliance, Bismarck went ahead and made another alliance with Russia. But Russia was a bitter enemy of Austria for; both wanted to dominate the Balkans. Thus, this was an utterly fragile web of treaties.

In 1888, Kaiser Wilhem II became the ruler of Germany. This was a proud and stubborn man who did not want to share the power with anyone. This young man forced veteran commander Bismarck to resign, on account of his different political views. This new Kaiser was too much obsessed with the power of his army. In 1890, Wilhelm II let the treaty with Russia lapse. Russia responded by forming a defensive military alliance with France in 1892 and 1894.

Bismarck was fearful of such an alliance because if there is a war with either Russia or France, Germany would have to fight at both of its eastern and western fronts.

The impulsive Kaiser did not stop here. He challenged the Britain’s large empire and mighty navy by starting a tremendous shipbuilding programme. The idea was to have a navy, which is no less than Britain. Why not, because Germany also had a small colonial empire by that time!

Triple Entente (1907)

In 1904, Britain entered into an alliance (entente) with France. In 1907, Britain made another alliance with France and Russia. This was called the Triple Entente. This treaty ensured that Britain would not fight against France or Russia.

Thus, by the end of first decade of 20^th century, there were two rival camps in Europe. A dispute between two rival powers could draw the entire continent into war.

The Nationalism in Balkans and Crisis

The Balkans is the peninsular Southeast Europe. The name is derived from the Balkan Mountains. This region is inhabited by an assortment of ethnic groups and has been one of the most volatile regions in 20^th century.

The most dominating groups are the Slavic Ethnic groups which include the Bulgarians, Macedonians, Serbs, Croats, Bosniaks etc.  The other relatively minor ethnic groups include Romanians, Greeks, Turks, Albanians, and others.

Balkans had a long history of nationalist uprisings and ethnic clashes. This was the reason that the Balkans was known as the “powder keg” of Europe.

Powder Keg

A powder keg is a barrel of gunpowder and was the primary method for storing and transporting large quantities of black powder up until the 1870s and the adoption of the modern cased bullet. Powder keg is also a metaphorical term sometimes political, socio-economic, historical or other circumstances have made the subject prone to outbursts.

In 1990s, the Ottoman Empire was on a rapid decline. Some of the Balkan groups had already broken away from the Turkish rule, while other wished to get free.  These free groups formed new countries such as Greece, Serbia, Bulgaria, Montenegro, Romania etc.

Each of them would like to extend its border. For example, Serbia would like to absorb all the Slavs of the Balkan Peninsula. The Russia and Austria-Hungary were on direct conflict on the issue of Serbia.  Russia supported the Serbian nationalism because Russia itself was a mostly Slavic nation. Austria-Hungary felt threatened by Serbs because it had a little Slavic Population, which could break away from it.

There was a power vacuum created in Balkans due to decline of the Ottoman Empire. Both Russia and Austria-Hungary wished to fill this vacuum with their own power.

In 1908, Austria annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina. Both of these regions were having large Slavic populations, thus this annexation irked the Serbian leaders. Germany was standing firmly behind Austria. Serbians were promised help from Russia, but Russia itself was not ready for a war. In this circumstance, there was no war because Serbia could not afford to fight with Austria merely on the basis of wordily support from Russia.

Tension prevailed for next few years. Meanwhile. Serbia gained confidence and new territories by small victories in some local conflicts. They wanted to take Bosnia and Herzegovina away from Austria. However, Austria-Hungary vowed to crush any Serbian effort to undermine its authority in the Balkans.

The War Triggers

In 1901, the members of the Serbian Army created a secret group called Black Hand. The objective of this secret group was to unite all of the territories where Slavic population was in majority and ridding Bosnia of Austria-Hungary.

In June 1914, Archduke Franz Ferdinand, the heir presumptive to the Austro-Hungarian throne paid a state visit along with his wife to Sarajevo, the capital of Bosnia. The couple was riding through the streets of Sarajevo in an open car and here, a member of Black Hand shot them fatally at point-blank range.

This assassination let Austria to use it as an excuse to punish Serbia. The German Kaiser Wilhelm II gave full support to Austria to take a punitive action. Austria sent an ultimatum to Serbians with a list of demands which included the following two harsh demands __:

• An end to all Anti-Austrian activity
• Allow Austrian officials enter their country to conduct an investigation into the assassinations.

Austria–Hungary’s ultimatum consisted of 10­ demands. The Serbian government was prepared to­ accept nine of these, but refused to allow Austro-Hungarian officials to be involved in the investigation into the assassination of Archduke Ferdinand.

The Serbians were still in no mood to fight with Austria. They offered negotiations and accepted some of the demands of Austria. But, Austria, backed by Wilhem II, was determined to punish them.

Major Events of the War

On July 28, 1914, Austria declared a war against Serbia. On the same day, Russia took arms and ordered mobilization of its troops. This sparked a chain reaction. Austria declared war on Serbia; Serbia’s ally Russia ordered its troops to move to Russia-Austria border. Russia also expected Germany to attack, so it ordered mobilizing one part of army to German Border also. The Russian Mobilization of army on German Border led Germany to declare a war against Russia. Now Russia looked at its ally France to act.  Before France could come into action, Germany attacked on France. Attacking France as well as Russia at one time means Germany would need to fight at two fronts viz. East and West  . Germany devised a speed plan which is called Schlieffen Plan after its deviser General Alfred Graf von Schlieffen. As per this plan, German troops must race very fast to first attack France, defeat it and then return back and attack Russia.  Attacking France via the long western Border would consume more time. Since it had to act fast, Germany wanted that its troops should enter France not via western border but via the unprotected Belgium border in north.  Meanwhile, Belgium was a neutral country.  Germany demanded a route from Belgium for its troops. When Belgium refused, Germany attacked Belgium as well as Luxembourg. Attack on Belgium irked Great Britain and it declared a war on Germany. Now Germany was fighting with 3 enemies. In summary, each major nation of Europe had taken either side as follows:

Central Powers

On one side were Germany and Austria Hungary. They were known as Central Powers, because they were located at the heart of Europe. These central powers were later joined by Bulgaria and Ottoman Empire.

Allies

On the other side were Great Britain, France, and Russia. Together, they were known as the Allied Powers or the Allies.

Reasons for Entry of Japan

Within weeks Japan joined allies. Japan joined because it wanted to seize the opportunity to expand its sphere of influence in China, and to gain recognition as a great power in post war geopolitics. It played important role in securing the sea lanes in the South Pacific and Indian Oceans against the German Kaiserliche Marine.

Reasons for Entry of Italy

Italy was first neutral but later joined Allies, breaking the Triple alliance with Germany and Austria-Hungary.

What motivated Italy to enter the First World War?

Italy had entered into the Triple Alliance with Germany and Austria-Hungary. But a few years before the war, it enhanced its diplomatic ties with Britain and secret ties with France. Austria was a traditional enemy of Italy since 19th century’s Risorgimento. Italy wanted to acquire many of the territories in the Austrian possession such as Trieste, Istria, Zara and Dalmatia.

Italy remained neutral for one entire year after the outbreak of war. It also maintained that its membership in the Triple Alliance was only a defensive stance. At the same time, Italian leaders were conducting a probe and trying to know which side could grant the best reward for Italy’s entry in the war. When Italy joined the war, it thought that it will be a small time affair, was not aware of the horrors ahead.

Further, Italians felt that the Germans had made an unprovoked attack on Belgium. This was used as an excuse to formally denounce the Triple Alliance.

First Battle of Marne

The First Battle of Marne was fought in September 1914 and was the first major battle of World War-I. Prior to this battle, the German troops overran Belgium and swept into France. However, French intelligence could get some vital information about the Schlieffen Plan. The allies attacked Germans in the valley of the Marne River. The Germans were defeated and they retreated. The defeat of the Germans left the Schlieffen Plan in ruins. However, after this, the western front came under the grip of Trench Warfare.

Trench Warfare

Though the allies defeated Germans in the Battle of Marne, but soon after, Britain and France found themselves facing an uninterrupted line of entrenched German forces from Lorraine to Belgium’s coast. Soldiers virtually lived and battled from within the trenches and fought to acquire small lands with huge losses in return. German soldiers built trenches and defended the occupied territories. Britain and France too offensive but the war in such was went on for entire three years.

Gallipoli Campaign

When the war was getting too much prolonged, the Allies desperately searched for a way to end the stalemate. One of the promising strategies they found was to attack the Ottoman Empire via the strategic Dardanelles region of the Ottoman Empire.

This narrow sea strait was the gateway to the Ottoman capital, Constantinople. The allies thought that if they secure Dardanelles, they can take Constantinople and defeat the Ottomans and thus establish a supply line to Russia.

Securing Dardanelles can also help them to mount an offensive into the Austrian heartland via Danube River. Thus, the Allies began the efforts to take Dardanelles in February 1915. Gallipoli and Dardanelles were defended by the Ottoman Turks and the Germans. But the campaign later turned into a bloody stalemate. The allies now gave up the idea and began to evacuate after losing more than 2500000 soldiers.

However, still the allies wished to topple the Ottoman Empire. The allies helped the Arabs in Middle East to rise against the Ottoman Turks. With the help of the Arabs, Allied armies took control of Baghdad, Jerusalem, and Damascus. The allies assaulted various colonial possessions of the Germans in Asia and Africa.

• Japanese overran German outposts in China and captured Germany’s Pacific island colonies
• English and French troops seized three of Germany’s four African possessions.

Americans Favour War

The US public was not in favour of a war that had nothing to do with them and that was 3,000 miles away. Although, the US didn’t want the Allies to win. Many naturalized US citizens followed the war closely.  Many supported their former countries. Many Americans felt close to Great Britain- with common ancestry, language, similar Democratic institutions, and legal systems. Stronger economic ties with the Allies- during war trade increased with the Allies.

By 1917, America had mobilized for war against the Central Powers for two reasons:

• To ensure Allied repayment of debts to the US.
• To prevent the Germans from threatening US shipping.

Till 1917, the war remained indecisive on the lands and now the focus shifted to the oceans.

Blockade of Germany

The British blocked the German coast an effort to restrict the maritime supply of raw materials and foodstuffs to the Central Powers. This German Blockade proved to be one of the key elements in the eventual allied victory in the war. It was claimed that 763,000 German civilians died from starvation and disease caused by the blockade up until the end of December 1918.

Unrestricted submarine warfare

The Germans were desperate to strike back, and then they declared to establish its own naval blockade around Britain. In January of 1917, Germany announced that its submarines would sink without warning any ship in the waters around Britain. This is known as the Unrestricted Marine Warfare.

This was not a new idea from Germany. Prior to this they had sunk a British Passenger Ship in the Atlantics in 1915. This act claimed lives of 1198 people out of which 128 were US Citizens.

The unrestricted submarine warfare policy of Germany outraged the Americans. A strong protest was sent from American President Woodrow Wilson to Germans. Ignoring the warning, the German submarines sunk three American Ships.

Zimmermann Note

Meanwhile, the British intercepted a telegram from Germany to Mexico, in which Germany said that Mexico would “reconquer” the land it had lost to the United States if Mexico would ally itself with Germany. This telegram was sent by Foreign Secretary of the German Empire, Arthur Zimmermann to the German ambassador in Mexico. This was called Zimmermann Note.

The Zimmermann Note was decoded by the British given to the U.S. government. Americans called for war against Germany. Further, the German war atrocities stirred anti-German sentiment in the United States.

In April 1917, President Wilson asked Congress to declare war. The United States entered the war on the side of the Allies.

Impact on general public and Governments

Soon, all countries of both camps dedicated all resources to the war, which is known as Total War. In every country, a wartime government took control of the economy. Governments dictated the factories to produce war specific goods. Many factories were converted to the ammunition factories. Every able bodied civilian was put to work. Unemployment disappeared. Farm Labourers as well as soldiers were imported from colonies.

The morale of the public went down. The short supplies of goods caused the government to adopt rationing. The anti-war protests started. Governments suppressed these protests and used false propaganda to keep up the morale of the public high.

Impact on Women

Thousands of women replaced men in factories, offices, and shops. They built weapons and they also ran hospitals. They supplied food and weapons to soldiers.

The active participation of women in war, changed the perception of men towards them.

Withdrawal of Russia from War

Once United States entered the war, the balance of power seemed to be towards Allies. Meanwhile, the Russians had tired of war and wanted to withdraw. Russian Revolution occurred and in November 1917, Communist leader Vladimir Ilyich Lenin seized power.

Lenin signed a truce with Germany via the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (March 1918).This treaty was extremely hard for Russians and required Russia to surrender many territories such as those of current Finland, Poland, Ukraine, Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania.

Once Russia was out of the game, Germans sent all its forces on the Western Front. They gave a final massive attack on the Allies in France. The Germans attacked with 6000 cannons and again reached near Marne River near Paris but 1400000 fresh American soldiers joined the allies. This was the Second battle of Marne.

Second Battle of Marne (July 1918)

American soldiers proved to be decisive in the second battle of Marne. Two million American troops arrived and marched steadily towards Germany. The Central Powers crumbled and started getting defeated. The first surrender was of Bulgarians. Second was of Ottoman Turks.

In October 1918, a revolution happened in Austria-Hungary and the empire came to end. In Germany, the soldiers mutinied and forced the Kaiser WilhelmII to step down. Germany declared itself a republic. A representative of the new German government met with allies and in a railway car in a forest near Paris, the two signed an armistice.

The terms of this armistice were written by French Marshal Ferdinand Foch. It included the cessation of hostilities, the withdrawal of German troops to behind their own borders, the preservation of infrastructure, the exchange of prisoners, a promise of reparations, the disposition of German warships and submarines, and conditions for prolonging or terminating the armistice. On November 11, 1918 World War I came to an end. After six months of negotiations at the Paris Peace Conference, the Treaty of Versailles was concluded.

Treaty of Versailles

The World War-I came to at an end on an armistice with Germany on 11-11-1918. In duration of one year, five treaties were signed by the allies with the defeated powers which brought to a formal end to the war. These treaties were as follows:

1. Treaty of Versailles: Allies and Germany
2. Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye: Allies and new Republic of Austria
3. Treaty of Neuilly-sur-Seine: Allies and Bulgaria
4. Treaty of Trianon – Allies and Kingdom of Hungary
5. Treaty of Sèvres: Allies and Ottoman Empire

The major outcomes of the WWI on the geopolitics were as follows:

• Four empires collapsed
• Old countries were abolished, new ones formed, boundaries were redrawn
• League of Nations (LON) was established

The Paris Peace Conference

For a period of one year, the Palace of Versailles, outside Paris remained a venue of hot debates. The peace treaty took so long because of the conflicting aims of the allied powers.

The Paris Peace Conference was attended by the delegates representing 32 countries, but major decisions were dominated by the Big Four:

• Woodrow Wilson of the United States
• Georges Clemenceau of France
• David Lloyd George of Great Britain
• Vittorio Orlando of Italy.

Russia, in the grip of civil war, was not represented. Neither were Germany and its allies.

Wilson’s 14 Points

While the First World War was still underway, a number of governments and groups had already started developing plans to change the way international relations were carried out to try to prevent another such conflict.

In January 1918, US President Woodrow Wilson had drawn series of proposals called Fourteen Points with an objective to achieve a just and lasting peace. These fourteen points were related to __:

1. Reliance on open diplomacy rather than secret agreements
2. Freedom of the seas
3. Free trade
4. Reduce the military forces and/or weapons
5. Readjust the colonies fairly
6. The allowance for Russia to self-determine its own government
7. Respect for Belgium’s Integrity
8. Restoration of French Territory
9. Italy receives territory based upon ethnicity
10. Austria-Hungary receives fair development opportunities
11. Independence for the Balkan states
12. Self-determination for the peoples of the Ottoman Empire and free passage through the Dardanelles
13. Independence for Poland
14. The formation of a League of Nations to guarantee independence for all countries, large and small.

Difference between the Treaty of Versailles and the Wilson’s 14 points

The Great Britain and France had little interest in Wilson’s vision of peace; rather they wanted to denude Germany of its military and economic power. France was keen on punishing Germany in the harshest way because most of the fight had taken place on its land and it lost millions of men. After heated arguments, the Treaty of Versailles between Germany and the Allied powers was signed on June 28, 1919. The treaty adopted Wilson’s fourteenth point and created the League of Nations.

Before the Treaty of Versailles was signed, the Wilson’s speech was widely disseminated among Germans. But the Treaty was having significant differences particularly the Article 231 (War Guilt Clause). Germany was also denied an air force, and the German army was not to exceed 100,000 men. German outrage over reparations and the War Guilt Clause was one of the contributing factor to the rise of national socialism in Germany.

Major Provisions of Treaty of Versailles

The Major provisions of the Treaty of Versailles were as follows:

• Establishment of League of Nations
• Punishments to Germany via the war guilt clause.
• Creation of new nations
• Mandate System

League of Nations

The League of Nations (LON) was the first permanent international organization whose principal mission was to maintain world peace. Its primary goals, as stated in its Covenant, included preventing war through collective security and disarmament, and settling international disputes through negotiation and arbitration.

But the new League was given a devastating blow when the US Senate refused to ratify the Versailles Treaty. The country never joined the League, making the newly formed organization permanently handicapped. The five allied powers—the United States, Great Britain, France, Italy, and Japan—were to be permanent members of the league’s Executive Council.

Its General Assembly would consist of representatives of 32 Allied and neutral nations. Germany was deliberately excluded. Russia was also left out because of its early withdrawal from the war and its revolutionary leadership.

Punishments to Germany

• Lost substantial territory
• Severe restrictions placed on its military operations. Germany was forbid to maintain an army.
• Harshest punishment via War Guilt Clause (Article 231) of the Treaty of Versailles.
  • Sole responsibility for the war placed on Germany’s shoulders
  • Germany had to pay reparations to the Allies amounting to $33 billion.
  • All of Germany’s territories in Africa and the Pacific were declared mandates, or territories to be administered by the League of Nations.
  • Allies would govern the mandates until they were judged ready for independence

The Creation of New Nations

There were total five treaties signed with the Central Powers by the allies. Versailles treaty with Germany was just one of these five treaties. Separate peace treaties were signed in 1919 and 1920 with each of the other defeated nations: Austria, Hungary, Bulgaria, and the Ottoman Empire. These treaties led to huge land loss for the Central Powers. Austria, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, and Yugoslavia were created out of the Austria-Hungary Empire. Ottoman Turks retained only the territory that is today the country of Turkey.

Mandate System

The Allies carved up the lands that the Ottomans lost in Southwest Asia into mandates rather than independent nations.

• Palestine, Iraq, and Transjordan came under British control
• Syria and Lebanon went to France.
• Russia suffered land losses as well.
  • Romania and Poland both gained Russian territory.
  • Finland, Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania, formerly part of Russia, became independent nations.

Impact of the Treaty of Versailles

The Treaty of Versailles was a peace built on quicksand. It did little to build a lasting peace. United States, which emerged as a dominant nation after the war, ultimately rejected the treaty. It did not either join the LON.

United States worked out a separate treaty with Germany and its allies after a few years.  The war guilt clause left a legacy of bitterness and hatred in the hearts of the German people. Other countries felt cheated and betrayed. The colonial people in Asia and Africa got angry because the Allies disregarded their desire for independence.  The Mandate system came up as a new disguised form of European Colonialism. Japan and Italy, which had joined the war to gain territory, gained but too less than what they expected. Absence of United States from the League of Nations kept it permanently crippled. It was in no position to take action on complaint of any country.

Japan and Italy were both alienated and angered by the outcome of the Paris Peace Conference, as neither felt they had received the territorial gains as merited their contribution to the war. Japan was also angered by the rejection of the proposed ‘racial equality clause’.

Other Important Notes

WW-I as first modern war

World War I has been described as the ‘first modern war’, largely because it was the first war in which advanced machine guns, chemical warfare, tanks, attack aircraft and submarines were widely used.  It was also the first ‘total war’, where nations mobilised all of their available resources for the war effort. Millions of people, mainly young men, lost their lives in this conflict, and towns, homes, businesses and farms were destroyed.

Disillusion: The Permanent Contribution of World War-I

Disillusion means freeing from false belief or illusions. The cost of the World War I was extreme. It claimed lives of 8.5 million soldiers and left another 21 million wounded. Additionally, the war led to death of countless civilians by way of starvation, disease, and slaughter. Taken together an entire generation of Europeans wiped out.  The economic cost of the war was pegged at $338 billion. The war also destroyed thousands of acres of farmland, as well as homes, villages, and towns.  It was the enormous suffering and the apparent mindlessness of the Great War that left the survivors with a sense of disillusionment. This disillusionment is reflected in the insecurity and despair expressed in the art and literature of those times. This disillusionment was particularly reflected in the middle classes who were now firm that the hatred and mistrust of the old leaders dragged the world into an unnecessary conflict, who had then mismanaged its direction with such ghastly results, and who had betrayed the cause of international peace for national gain soured the minds of many younger men and women in the post-war period.  The British poet Edmund Blunden expressed this profound disillusionment when he took as the title for a poem, written to celebrate New Year’s Day 1921, the biblical verse: ‘The dog is turned to his own vomit again, and the sow that was washed to her wallowing in the mire.’”