World History: Vietnam War

Vietnam War (1950s to 1970s) was the longest and most polarizing conflict in the history of United States. This conflict was basically a proxy war but it took life of some 58,000 American soldiers and 1.5 million Vietnamese. For United States, the war was a complete disaster.

Historical Background

To understand Vietnam War, it is necessary to understand a few events in Indo-China before 1945. Indo-china refers to the mainland part of South East Asia and currently, the countries in Indo-China are Cambodia, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, Thailand and Vietnam are part of it. In 19th century, Indo-China comprised of three main bodies of land viz. Cambodia, Laos and Empire of Annam, which consisted of some smaller territories of Tonkin, Annam etc. This region is a potpourri of different cultures and ethnicities. It was known for abundant production of rubber, rice, opium and was located strategically on marine trade routes.

Historically, this region has faced different kinds of foreign invasions. The longest tenure of colonisation in the region was recorded by French {from 19th century till 1954 Geneva Conference}. France had completed conquest of the region by 1870s. At that time, Cambodia, Laos, Annam and Cochin China were part of French Empire. In 20th century, the region suffered badly under French – economic conditions worsened, societal development negligible, infrastructure collapse. In this period, suppression of the Vietnamese also increased.

Struggle of France and Japan over Indochina

At the onset of WW-II, Japan threatened French occupation of Indochina. By 1938, both Japan and France had mobilized forces for control in the region. In 1939, Japan gave an ultimatum to French in an effort to avert war. The demands of Japan were:

• Termination of French and Chinese relations
• Establishment of Japanese garrisons between French Indochina and China
• Reduction of supplies to China.
• Supply the Japanese forces with war material for operations in the Pacific.

In turn, Japanese agreed to allow France to continue to run the daily operations of Indochina, but under their close supervision. However, since this ultimatum came at a time when WW-II had just began in Europe, the leaders of French Indochina were left to take their decisions on their own. The local leaders accepted the Japanese conditions and agreed on a joint defense treaty with Japan. This Japanese occupation decimated the Vietnamese. Prices skyrocketed and individuals started getting killed due to starvation {because of shortage of rice which was now used by Japanese forces}, shortage of medicine {this led to increase in smallpox and typhus fever}. Moreover, new taxes were imposed on Vietnamese by the French to raise money for the empire.

French was fearful that Japan would unite all Asians against Europeans. They started a propaganda called “National Revolution” under which they promoted deceptive equality of French and Vietnamese. Vietnamese were deceived into believing that they were societal and political equals. However, those who spoke against the French or refused to adopt French policies were imprisoned. Thus, French further created problems for Vietnamese.

On March 9, 1945, Japan launched a coup against French Government in Indo-China. After a short battle which claimed 4000 lives {of French and Vietnamese}, Japan declared Indo-China free of Western Rule and placed Bao Dai, the emperor of Annam in control of new Japanese puppet state. This new state was named Empire of Vietnam. The French rule had come to an abrupt end, temporarily.

Opposition by Vietnamese

However, both French and Japanese failed to realize that various ethnic groups that comprised Indo-China had a deep rooted tradition of struggle against odds. The same mistake would be done by America later. In fact, the Vietnamese struggle represented an ideological struggle and for them, peace meant a unified Indochina under the leadership of one native leader. The initial waves of dissent against both French and Japanese came for religious reasons from Buddhist and Cao Dai sects. However, French had brutally cracked down upon them and suppressed them.  Second wave of resistance was led by Vietnamese nationalists, particularly, Ho Chi Minh. He sparked a nationalist emotion within the Indo-China. Supported by communist group Viet Minh {literally League for Independence of Vietnam}, he encouraged Vietnamese to oppose the Franco-Japanese occupation of their country. The members of Viet Minh distributed anti-French pamphlets, created booklets on conducting guerrilla warfare etc. Viet Minh also created geographical subdivisions called National Liberation Committees, headed by nationalists such as Vo Nguyen Giap and Chu Van Tang. They were also able to secure anti-Japan funding from US, USSR and China. It campaigned for a revolution that would bring freedom to Indo-China.

After defeat of Japan in August 1945, the leader Ho declared Indochina an independent republic and forced Bao Dai to abdicate. He subsequently renamed the region as Democratic Republic of Vietnam (DRV). However, this freedom was short-lived as French regained control soon afterwards.

About Ho Chi Minh

Ho Chi Minh {originally Nguyen Sinh Cung} was born in 1890. He was heavily influenced by his father’s involvement in the Vietnamese nationalist campaign to win independence from France. His indoctrination in anti-colonial ideas was expanded during his schooling. Instead of completing his education, he embarked on a journey around the world in 1911 and visited US, Britain and France. Appalled by the destruction of WW-I, he sought to remove the Western Influence from Indo-China. In 1919, he had pleaded with Wilson to accept his request for Vietnamese independence from France, but Wilson declined Ho’s proposal. Displeased, he started engaging in communist party ideologies and visiting communist nations. He founded the Revolutionary Youth League of Vietnam, which later became Indochinese Communist Party. After two decades of studying, campaigning for communism and speaking out against colonialism, Ho returned to Indochina in 1941.

About Viet Minh

Once returned in 1941, Ho sparked a nationalist campaign to win Vietnamese independence from France. His efforts led to birth of the League for the Independence of Vietnam, or Viet Minh. Viet Minh recruited Vietnamese citizens with a broad range of beliefs such as socialists, communists, nationalists and democrats. Their overarching goal was to assmilate people in a purely nationalistic cause and win freedom from France. Ho became the leader of the massed led the Viet Minh engagements against the French and Japanese. When France was reeling from war and Japan was on verge of defeat, Ho organized the August Revolution and claimed Vietnamese independence. He established DRV on September 2, 1945. This date also marked Ho’s adoption of his final name, Ho Chi Minh, which translated to ‘he who enlightens.’

War Against France

The freedom thus gained was short-lived because French returned to Indo-China in 1946. They rejected DRV and attempted to consolidate power. After a series of failed negotiations and minor conflicts, Ho orchestrated a large scale war against France. This was the First Indo-China War that lasted from 1946 to 1954.

In the long duration war, France realized that it was not so easy to combat the guerrilla tactics of Viet Minh. So, they tried to win political support and created an anti-communist state called State of Vietnam under Emperor of Annam Bao Dai. In 1950, this State of Vietnam managed to gain the support of the United States.

However, Viet Minh forces were relentless and continued their fight. Finally, France succumbed to Viet Minh after a devastating defeat at the Battle of Dien Bien Phu in May 1954. Vietnamese gained the advantage at the Geneva Conference immediately following the French capitulation. The Geneva Agreements favoured Ho’s quest for independence, as it officially recognized the DRV after the nation was split at the 17th parallel, called for reunification elections in July 1956, eliminated the French from Indochina and ended the war.

However, at this point, United States refused to sign the agreements. Instead, US supported State of Vietnam and its premier Ngo Dinh Diem. Within a year, in October 1955, the State of Vietnam was renamed the Republic of Vietnam (RVM), or South Vietnam. Diem rejected the reunification elections and gained the support of the United States in his battle against the communist DRV. Disheartened by the failed reunification effort, Ho launched the protracted and costly Second Indochina War, which is called Vietnam War against the RVM and the United States.

We note here that between the First Indochina War and the Geneva Conference, Viet Minh had become the dominant Vietnamese political party within the region. Yet, by 1951, the Viet Minh yielded to the newly formed Vietnam Workers Party. And while aspects of the Viet Minh eventually re-emerged following Geneva, the dominant entity that it had become during the 1940s ceased to exist during the Vietnam War.

Ho and the Vietnam War

During initial years of Vietnam War (1955-60), Ho remained as Supreme Leader of DRV. He oversaw the daily operations of the state, travelled to communist countries, presided over the construction of the Ho Chi Minh Trail and dictated military strategy, including the creation of the People’s Army of Vietnam (PAVN) and the National Liberation Front (Viet Cong). As he aged in 1960s, he limited his responsibilities to make public appearances {to boost morale of Vietnamese people who were struggling to stem the tide against the American war effort}. This revered leader died on September 2, 1969. The mourning people renamed Saigon, the capital of the RVM as Ho Chi Minh City following the communist victory in the Vietnam War in 1975.

American Involvement

1961 and 1962 represented a change in the American strategy in the Vietnam War when President John F. Kennedy decided to enlarge the American effort in South Vietnam in a multitude of ways. He introduced thousands of military advisors to the region to help train and equip the Army of the Republic of Vietnam (ARVN) and the Republic of Vietnam Air Force (RVNAF). He switched ambassadors to provide Ngo Dinh Diem with a more supportive network. Kennedy poured American planes and war equipment into South Vietnam.

He approved of the establishment of the Civilian Irregular Defense Group (CIDG), the Strategic Hamlet Program and the beginning of Operation Ranch Hand. Kennedy continued to enlarge the effort in Vietnam through the reorganization of the Military Assistance Advisory Group (MAAG) into the Military Assistance Command-Vietnam (MACV). Yet, with the influx of personnel and materials, the National Liberation Front (NLF) continued to expand and earn victories over the South Vietnamese forces.

However, 1963 marked an important turning point for the United States in the Vietnam War. It began with a significant defeat of the Army of the Republic of Vietnam (ARVN) at the Battle of Ap Bac on January 2. Then, over the period of several months, the Buddhist Crisis arose within South Vietnam. After Ngo Dinh Diem rejected the Buddhists request to fly their respective flag, protests arose in cities such as Saigon and Hue. Diem attempted to suppress the Buddhists, but this led to the United States distancing itself from the embattled leader.

There was a general consensus in Kennedy’s administration about the consequences of losing Vietnam to communism; there were others who feared the worst. Undersecretary of State George Ball told Kennedy that within five years there would be 300,000 U.S. soldiers in Vietnam. However, Ball was incorrect: within five years nearly 400,000 soldiers were in Vietnam. Even with his advisers calling for escalation, Kennedy proceeded cautiously. By the middle of 1962 he had increased the number of military advisers from 700 to 12,000. He added another 5,000 in 1963. As the number of casualties increased, the prospects of withdrawing became increasingly difficult. In the face of so many problems, Kennedy gave the order to overthrow Diem. On November 1, South Vietnamese military officials, with the assistance of the U.S. embassy in Saigon, arrested Diem and his brother. While in custody, both were assassinated.

But this plan backfired and a number of inexperienced military officers took command in South Vietnam with little support and were unable to govern effectively. The country sank deeper into trouble and the role of the United States increased. Within few days, President Kennedy was also assassinated on November 22, 1963; and the issue of Vietnam fell to President Lyndon B. Johnson; who was deeply troubled over Vietnam and had been for some time. During the rest of the months leading up to the November 1964 election, Johnson tried all he could to keep the issue of Vietnam in the background, fearing it would hurt his chances of being elected. In many of his conversations with Robert McNamara, secretary of defense, Johnson discussed doing all he could to keep the public thinking that he had made no final decisions on Vietnam.

Some advisers were trying to give Johnson suggestions for getting out of Vietnam and still saving face; meanwhile, the Joint Chiefs of Staff were advising him that preventing the loss of South Vietnam was of overriding importance to the United States.

Robert McNamara visited Saigon. He reported to Johnson that conditions had worsened there since General Khanh took over power in January 1964. Many officials there favoured increased pressure on North Vietnam, including air strikes. McNamara, aware of Johnson’s wish to be ambiguous to the public regarding his stance, offered to take a lot of the heat. Johnson, knowing the conditions in Vietnam, understood that in order to achieve the ambitious conditions set out in McNamara’s policy statement, an escalation of military power in the country would have to be undertaken.

Gulf of Tonkin Crisis and Resolution

On August 2, 1964 North Vietnamese gunboats had attacked the USS Maddox in the Gulf of Tonkin. On August 4 the Maddox and another vessel, the USS Turner Joy, reported being under attack. Many doubts exist about whether or not the second attack actually took place, but the Johnson administration used it as a pretext for retaliation. Johnson ordered the first U.S. air strikes against North Vietnam. On August 6, Johnson went before Congress and urged American congressmen to issue a counter to the North Vietnamese actions. After witnessing that roughly 85% of the American public supported Johnson’s airstrike, Congress overwhelmingly approved of the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution on August 7. The resolution was essentially a blank check for conducting war in Southeast Asia. It gave Johnson the unregulated power to take action in Vietnam in order to protect American strategic interests and personnel. Additionally, the motion provided Johnson with the ability to defend members of the South East Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO) from communist insurgency.

The Gulf of Tonkin Resolution became a dangerous protocol in the hands of Johnson. This ultimately provided him with the window he needed to expand the war in Vietnam, which translated into a devastating air war and the introduction of American combat troops in 1965. Since the resolution could only be nullified by presidential consent or by a congressional declaration of termination (which congressman failed to achieve a majority), Johnson, and eventually President Richard Nixon, were free to conduct the war effort how they saw fit. While there was a burgeoning opposition to the conflict in Vietnam between 1965 and 1969, it was not until June 1970 that the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution was officially repealed.

Importance of Gulf of Tonkin Crisis

The Gulf of Tonkin Crisis was an extremely significant event because with this, US got more and more involved in the conflict. The US President introduced American combat troops in 1965. It also marked congressional acceptance of a heightened state of war in Southeast Asia to do what was necessary to protect American forces and interests.

Climax of War

After July 1965 the war escalated into a major international conflict. The North Vietnamese army numbered in the thousands, and they supported an estimated National Liberation Front force of 80,000. From 6,000 U.S. troops in Vietnam in July 1965, the number increased to over 536,000 by 1968, with an additional 800,000 South Vietnamese troops. Both sides played to their own strengths. The United States had great wealth, modern weapons, and a highly trained military force under the command of General William Westmoreland. Using bombing raids and search-and-destroy missions, it sought to force the opponent to surrender.

At the same time, the National Liberation Front and the North Vietnamese army, under the exceptional direction of Vo Nguyen Giap, used a different strategy altogether. They were lightly armed and knew the area. They relied on the guerrilla warfare tactics of stealth and mobility. Giap wanted to wear down the United States and its allies by harassment missions. Between 1965 and 1967 the United States did untold amounts of damage to Vietnam. Bombing increased from 63,000 tons in 1965 to over 226,000 tons in 1967. Despite this, the US military strategy failed to produce clear results. The war dragged on, and opposition to the conflict in the United States intensified. Countless protests took place in cities and on college campuses. Troops who returned home were often treated poorly, quite the opposite of the heroes’ welcome experienced by returning veterans of World War II.

Tet Offensive of 1968

The Tet Offensive of 1968 brought a new phase of the war. In late 1967, the North Vietnamese launched operations in remote areas to draw U.S. forces away from cities. On January 31, 1968, the National Liberation Front launched massive attacks on the unsecured urban areas. They led strikes on 36 provincial capitals, 5 major cities in the south, and 64 district capitals. They also attacked the U.S. embassy in Saigon and captured Hue for a period. Although the Tet Offensive failed overall, it had a profound psychological effect on the people of the United States. Protests increased, and murmurs that the war was unwinnable became much more audible. As a result of developments in Vietnam and widespread unrest across the country, Lyndon Johnson announced that he would not seek re-election in 1968. We note here that the social activism and antiwar movements of the late 1960s spurred many protests against the Vietnam War.

Richard Nixon and Cambodian Affair

After the Tet Offensive, ensuing peace talks failed to produce any agreement. The problem of Vietnam fell to the fourth U.S. president involved in the Vietnam conflict, Richard Nixon. In 1969 he expanded the war into neighbouring Cambodia, a move that he kept from the press, further increasing the gap in the people’s trust in the government when he went public about the decision in 1970. The domestic backlash led to a new wave of protests, during which four students died at Kent State University in Ohio, and two more at Jackson State University in Mississippi. Nixon’s involvement in Vietnam was marked by increased domestic opposition.

After the Cambodian affair, Congress repealed the Tonkin Gulf Resolution. The trial of Lieutenant William Calley, commander of a unit that murdered 500 South Vietnamese civilians at My Lai, raised fundamental moral questions about the war. Finally, the Pentagon Papers were published in 1971, which deepened public distrust in the government. Polls showed that more than 70 percent of Americans felt that the United States had erred when it sent troops into Vietnam. During 1972–73 the US phase of the war ended.

Peace Agreement

A peace agreement was signed in Paris on January 27, 1973, which allowed for the extraction of U.S. military forces from Vietnam and the return of U.S. prisoners of war but did not address the fundamental issues over which the war had been fought. North Vietnam was allowed to leave 150,000 troops in the south, and the future of South Vietnam was not directly and clearly spelled out. Fighting broke out between the north and the south, and US Congress drastically cut military and economic aid to South Vietnam.

When Richard Nixon resigned because of the Watergate scandal, the Vietnam War issue was passed to its fifth president, Gerald Ford. Congress rejected his request for $722 million in aid for South Vietnam, agreeing to only $300 million in emergency aid to extract the remaining US personnel from the south. The climax of this came on May 1, 1975, with a harrowing rooftop helicopter evacuation.

The total cost of the war was extensive. South Vietnamese military casualties exceeded 350,000, and estimates of North Vietnamese losses range between 500,000 and 1 million. Civilian deaths cannot be accurately counted but ran into the millions. More than 58,000 U.S. troops were killed, and over 300,000 were injured. The total financial cost of the war exceeded $167 billion. Many of Johnson’s Great Society reforms were cut back because of the increased military expenditures. Veterans returning home experienced long-lasting effects, which ranged from flashbacks to posttraumatic stress disorder to the effects of exposure to chemicals. Furthermore, the war saw no tangible results. Once the United States evacuated Saigon, the north overran the south and Vietnam was united under communist rule.