Vijayanagara Empire
Vijayanagara Empire or Karnata Empire or Kingdom of Bisnegar was established in 1336 by Harihara-I and his brother Bukka Raya I of Sangama Dynasty. Its ruins are located in current day Hampi in Karnataka. Four dynasties – Sangama, Saluva, Tuluva and Aravidu – ruled Vijayanagar from A.D. 1336 to 1672. It reached its climax in the end of 14th century.
Sources of History
The sources of Vijayanagar empire history include accounts of foreign travellers, local vernacular literature, archaeological excavations etc. A number of foreign travellers have left a vivid account of the glory of Vijayanagar. We come to know from these sources that Vijaynagar was one of the richest kingdoms of those times. Ibn Batuta has left account of Harihara-I and Bahamani kingdom in his work Rehla. Other foreign travellers included Venetian traveller Nicolo de Conti, Persian traveller Abdur Razzak and the Portuguese traveller Domingo Paes, who left valuable accounts on the socio-economic conditions of the Vijayanagar Empire.
Among local works, the Amuktamalyada of Krishna Deva Raya gives details of political ideas and the polity of Vijayanagar empire. Allasani Peddan’s Manucharitam gives account of social condition especially caste system of Vijaynagar empire Muduravijayam of Gangadevi gives account of Kampana’s conquest of Madurai during the reign of Bukka I. Gangadasa Pralappa Vilasam of Gangadhara gives account of the siege of the Vijaynagar city by the Bahamanis and the Gajapatis of Orissa after the death of Deva Raya II. Saluvabhyudayam of Rajanattha Dindima gives account of historical eulogy of Saluva dynasty.
The Archaeological sources include inscriptions such as Baggapelsi copper plate (gives account Harihara I achievements); Bitraghunta grant of Sangama II (gives genealogy of 5 Sangama brothers who laid the foundation of Vijayanagar empire); Channarayapateena of Harihara II (gives details of Bukka I conquests), Srirangam copper plate (gives details of achievements of Deva Raya II) and Devulapalli copper plate (gives genealogy of Saluva dynasty).
This apart, the Varahas or gold coins of Vijaynagar rulers contain figures of the Hindu dieties and animals like bull, elephant and Gandaberunda (a double eagle, sometimes holding an elephant in beak and claw).
Initial Political Conquests
The Vijayanagar Empire was founded in 1336 by Harihara and Bukka of the Sangama dynasty, who were serving the Kakatiya ruler of Warangal, Prataparudra II. In 1323, the Muslim conquest of Kakatiya kingdom led the brothers go to kingdom of Kampili (in modern Karnataka) and they became the ministers there. However, Kampili was overrun by Muhammad Tughluq for giving refuge to a Muslim rebel. The two brothers were imprisoned, converted to Islam and were appointed to deal the rebellions in Kampili. However, they returned to the Hindu fold by inspiration of a saint Vidyaranya. They proclaimed independence by founding a new city on the bank of Tungabhadra River known as the Vijayanagar. Initially, they had to contend with the Hoysala ruler of Mysore and Sultan of Madurai. The dissolution of Hoysala Kingdom enabled Harihara and Bukka to expand their Kingdom. By 1346, the territories of Hoyasals came into the hands of Vijaynagar Kingdom. In 1377, the Sultanate of Madurai was also wiped off. Thereafter the Vijayanagar empire consisted the whole of south India up to Rameshwaram, including Tamil country as well as Kerala.
Vijayanagar-Bahmani Conflict
The conflict of Vijaynagar and Bahamani kingdom was on three areas viz. Tungabadra doab, Krishna-Godavari delta and the Marathwada country. The conflict began in 1367 when Bukka-I attacked fortress of Mudkal in Tungabhadra doab and invited ire of Bahamani Sultan. The sultan was able to recapture Mudkal, but the war concluded with a treaty.
Attempt at Eastward Expansion
After the above mentioned conflict, the rulers of Vijayanagar embarked upon a policy of expansion towards the eastern sea coast under Harihara II. This expansion policy led to conflicts. This resulted into bonhomie between Bahmani kingdom and Warangal. This was the major reason of inability of the Vijayanagar empire to overrun the Tungabhadra doab or to stem the Bahmani from the area.
Renewal of Conflict under the Deva Rayas
When Deva Raya I ascended the throne, there was the reversal of conflict for the Tungabhadra doab. He was however defeated by the Bahmani ruler, Firoz Shah. This led him to pay a huge indemnity. He also agreed to marry his daughter to the Sultan. This did not bring about peace though. Later, it was the Krishna-Godavari delta which led to a renewed conflict between Vijayanagar, the Bahmani kingdom and Orissa.
Around the same time, there was confusion in the Reddy kingdom. Deva Raya took advantage of this and entered into an alliance with Warangal for partitioning the Reddy kingdom between them. There was change of power due to Warangal’s defection from the side of the Bahmani kingdom. Therefore, Deva Raya was able to inflict a shattering defeat on Firoz Shah and annexed the entire territory up to the mouth of the Krishna.
After Deva Raya I, it was Deva Raya II who was the greatest ruler of the Sangama dynasty. He inducted Muslims in his army, and asked all his Hindu soldiers and officers to learn the art of archery from them. This enabled him to cross Tungabhadra river and tried to recover Mudkal, Bankpur, etc., which were to the south of the Krishna river and had been lost to the Bahmani Sultans earlier.
Decline under Later Sangamas and Saluvas
Deva Raya II’s death led to confusion in the Vijayanagar empire. Many civil wars were fought for the throne. Many feudatories assumed independence in the process. Ultimately, the throne was usurped by the king’s minister, Saluva Narasimha. Thus the Sangama dynasty came to an end and the Saluva dynasty was established. Saluva Narasimha restored internal law and order in the empire.
Revival under Tuluva Krishna Deva Raya
Tuluva dynasty was founded by Vira Narasimha. He was succeeded by his half-brother, Krishna Deva Raya (1509-29) who is considered as the greatest of all the Vijayanagar rulers for his military as well as literary and other achievements.
Final Decline and Aravidu Dynasty
Krishna Deva Raya’s death was followed by a struggle for succession among his relations. Rama Raja, son-in-law of Krishna Deva was able to playoff various Muslim powers against one another. Battle of Raksasa Tangadi in 1565 was fought. Rama Raja was imprisoned and immediately executed. This battle is generally considered to mark the end of the great age of Vijayanagar. The kingdom lingered on for almost one hundred years under the Aravidudynasty, however its territories shrank steadily.
Krishna Deva Raya’s Achievements
Repulsion of Bahmani Forces
Krishna Deva Raya’s first task was to repulse the Bahmani forces which invaded his territory on their annual raid into the Raya kingdom. The Muslim armies were decisively defeated in the battle of Diwani.
First Invasion of Bijapuri Kingdom
Krishna Deva Raya invaded the Raichur doab and took the Raichur fort. Victory over the Bijapuri kingdom earned him the title of Yavana rajya sthapanacharya’ (Establisher of the Yavana or Muslim kingdom). He extended the empire upto Kanyakumari including certain parts of Srilanka.
Friendshjp with ‘Portuguese
The Portuguese governor, Albuquerque, sent an agent to offer aid to Krishna Deva in his fight against the Bahmanis in return for Vijayanagar support against the Zamorin of Calicut. He also promised to supply Arab and Persian horses only to Vijayanagar and not to send any to Bijapur. But Krishna did not immediately accept the offer. The second Portuguese ambassador to Krishna Deva renewed the Portuguese governor’s request to erect a fort at Bhatkal and succeeded in his mission. This was after Albuquerque had attacked and captured Goa in 1510.
Suppression of Internal Revolt
The war against the rebel chieftain of Ummattur, Ganga Raya, began with an attack on Penugonda, which had passed in to the hands of the rebel. The capture of this strong fortress was followed by attacks on Ummattur and Sivasamudram. In the process, Ganga Raya was killed and the conquered territory became a new province with Srirangapatnam as capital.
Orissa Campaign
Krishna Deva defeated the forces of the Orissa ruler, and conquered the whole of Telangana. He then turned his attention to north-coastal Andhra where Rajamahendravaram was one ‘of the first cities to be taken.
Second Invasion of Bijapuri Kingdom
Ismail Adil Shah recaptured Raichur and this was the reason for the second conflict between the Bijapur ruler and Krishna Deva Raya. In the Battle of Raichur the Bijapur ruler was completely defeated and pushed across the river Krishna.
Patronage of Literature
Krishna Deva was also a great patron of art and literature, and was known as ‘Andhra Bhoja’. Eight eminent luminaries in literature known as Ashtadiggajas were at his court. Allasani Peddana was the greatest and he was often described as Andhrakavita Pitamaha. His important works include Manucharitam and Harikatha-saramsamu.
Others include Nandi Timmana (Parijatapaharanam), Madayya (Rajasekharcharitam), Dhurajati (KalahastiMahatyam), AyyalarajuRamabhadra (SakaramatasaraSangraham), PingaliSurana (Rqghq.va Pandaviyam and PrabhavariPradyumma), RamarajaBhusan and TenaliRamalinga (PandurangaMahatyam).
Besides, the king himself was the author of one Telugu work Amuktamalyada, and one Sanskrit work JambavatiKalyanam.
Contribution to Architecture
He built the famous temples of Krishnaswamy, Hazara Ramaswamy Vitthalaswamy at the capital. He also built a new city, called Nagalapura, in memory of his mother, Nagamba. Besides, he built a large number of Raya Gopurams (towers).
Administration In Vijayanagar Empire
Theory of Kingship
Kingship was based on the principle, of absolute monarchy, but of the benevolent type. The king was to ensure people’s welfare, listen to their appeals, and remove all their difficulties.
Law of Succession
It was based generally on the hereditary principle. But there were instances of successors being nominated by the reigning rulers to ensure peaceful succession. There were also instances of usurpation. The Sangama dynasty ended when SaluvaNarasimha usurped the throne.
Central Administration
There was a council of ministers, headed by a prime minister, to assist and advise the king in administrative matters. But it was left to the king’s discretion whether or not to abide by them.
Provincial and Local Administration
The empire was divided into different administrative units mandalams or rajyas (provinces), nadus (districts), sthalas (sub-districts) and finally in to gramas (villages). The Vijayanagar rulers did not interfere in ‘local administration, and hence local bodies had complete autonomy. Gauda, village headman, looked after the administration of the village which was the basic unit of administration.
Revenue Administration
Chief Sources of Income
Land revenue from crown lands was the most important source. Tributes and gifts from vassals and feudal chiefs; customs collected at the ports, and tolls on inland commerce; taxes on various professions, houses, markets and licences; fines inflicted by courts, etc. were also important sources of income.
Collection of Land Revenue
It was collected on the basis of assessment, fixed after careful survey. Generally 1/6th of the gross produce was collected as revenue. But sometimes it was raised to fifty per cent.
Items of Expenditure
As suggested in the Amuktamalyadu, the expenditure of the state was divided into four parts-charities and personal expenditure of the king, maintenance of horses, military conquests and security of the empire.
Judicial Administration in Vijaynagar Empire
- King administered justice impartially.
- He presided over the sabha which was the highest court of appeal.
- There were also village courts, caste panchayats and guild organisations to dispose of petty offences like violation of caste rules and rules of trade.
- Dharmasastras generally formed the basis on which cases were decided. Harsh punishments were inflicted.
Military Administration
- There was a well organised and efficient standing army.
- It consisted of the cavalry, infantry, artillery and elephants.
- There were also high-breed horses which were procured from foreign merchants.
- Different grades of officers were there in the army, the top grades being the nayakas or palegars.
- In addition to the regular standing army, armies of vassal kings, governors and feudal levies assisted the king whenever necessary.
Social Conditions in Vijayanagar Empire
Caste System
- Allasani Peddana, in his Manucharitam mentions the four castes that existed in the Vijayanagar society.
- Viprulu or Brahmins followed the traditional profession of teachers and priests. Rajulu or rachavaru were generally associated with the ruling dynasty, assisting them in matters of state and warfare. The rulers as well as generals were actually Sudras, but called rachavaru on account of their position.
- Kshatriya varna seems to be absent here.
- Matikaratalu or Vaishyas were the same as merchants who carried on trade and commerce.
- Nalavajativaru or Sudras were mainly agriculturists, but some of them carried on several other professions.
- Polygamy was, practised by them and their women observed sati.
- Brahmins were priests in charge of temple worship.
Position of Women
- Education and learning- Gangadevi, wife of Kampana, wrote Maduravijayam. Hannamma was a prominent scholar in the court of Prauda Deva. Tirumalamma was a distinguished poetess in Sanskrit in the reign of Achyuta Raya.
- Employment- According to Nuniz, a large number of women were employee in royal palaces as dancers, domestic servants and palanquin bearers. There were also wrestlers among them. Some women were also appointed as accountants, judges bailiffs, and watch women.
- Custom of Devadasis- The practice of dancing girls attached to temples was also in vogue.
Religion
- Early Vijayanagar rulers were followers of Saivism.
- Virupaksha was their family god.
- Later they came under the influence of Vaishnavism.
- Srivaishnavism of Ramanuja was highly popular.
- The Dvaita system of Madhava was also practised.
- Epics and Puranas were popular among the masses, especially since they served asa means of education among women.
Cultural Contribution of Vijaynagar Empire
Architecture
The temple building activity of the Vijayanagar rulers produced a new style, called the Vijayanagar style. Though often characterised as Dravida style, it had its own distinct features.
Features
- The large number and prominence of pillars and piers and the complicated manner. The horse was the most common animal to be depicted on the pillars. They have a mandapam or open pavilion with a raised platform, generally meant for seating the deity on special occasions.
- These temples also have a kalyana mandapam with elaborately carved pillars. In the Vijayanagar temples the central part was occupied by the garbhagriha-the sanctum cell where the presiding deity was installed. Amman shrine was meant for the consort of the god.
The most important temples of Vijaynagar Empire include Vitthalaswamy and the Hazara Ramaswamy temples at Hampi. The Tadapatri and Parvati temples at Chidambaram, Varadaraja and Ekambaranatha temples at Kanchipuram.
Literature
The Vijayanagar rulers were also great patrons of literature. Under their patronage several religious as well as secular books were composed in different languages such as Sanskrit, Telugu, Kannada and Tamil. The peak of literary development was reached during the reign of Krishna Raya, who is rightly called Andhra Bhoja.
Economic Conditions of Vijaynagar Empire
The agriculture was in flourishing condition in Vijayanagar Empire. The agricultural wealth was supplemented by numerous industries, the most important of which were textiles, mining and metallurgy. Another important industry was perfumery. Industries and crafts were regulated by guilds. There was flourishing inland, coastal and overseas trade which was an important source of general prosperity. It had commercial relations -with the islands of the Indian Ocean, Burma, the Malay Archipelago and China in the East, and Arabia, Persia, South Africa, Abyssinia and Portugal on the West. Among the exports, the main items were doth, spices, rice, iron, saltpetre,’ sugar, etc. The main imports consisted of horses, elephants, pearls, copper, coral, mercury, China silks and velvets.
