Sudan-South Sudan Conflict

The Sudan–South Sudan conflict refers to the prolonged series of political, ethnic, and resource-based struggles between the Republic of Sudan and its southern region, which eventually became the independent Republic of South Sudan in 2011. The conflict is rooted in deep historical, religious, and cultural divisions, as well as competition over oil resources and territorial disputes. Although South Sudan’s independence formally ended decades of civil war, tensions and clashes have continued along the border, making it one of Africa’s most enduring and complex conflicts.

Historical Background

1. Colonial Legacy

• Sudan was jointly administered by Britain and Egypt from 1899 to 1956 as the Anglo-Egyptian Condominium.
• The North, predominantly Arab and Muslim, was culturally and economically integrated with the Arab world.
• The South, populated by Black African ethnic groups practising Christianity or traditional religions, remained underdeveloped and isolated.
• British colonial policy deepened this divide by administering the two regions separately — a policy known as the Southern Policy.

When Britain unified the administration before granting independence in 1956, the South feared northern domination in the new national government.

First Sudanese Civil War (1955–1972)

• Even before independence, southern army units revolted in 1955, leading to the First Sudanese Civil War.
• The southern rebels, known as the Anya Nya movement, demanded federal autonomy and protection of southern interests.
• The war continued for 17 years, causing massive displacement and casualties.

Addis Ababa Agreement (1972):

• Brokered by the World Council of Churches and Ethiopia, it ended the first civil war.
• Granted autonomy to Southern Sudan, creating a Southern Regional Government.
• However, the agreement broke down when President Jaafar Nimeiri revoked autonomy in 1983 and imposed Islamic Sharia law nationwide, reigniting tensions.

Second Sudanese Civil War (1983–2005)

The second conflict was more violent and widespread, lasting over two decades.

Causes:

1. Abolition of Southern Autonomy: Nimeiri’s 1983 decision undermined the 1972 peace settlement.
2. Imposition of Sharia Law: The South opposed Islamisation policies and cultural domination by the Arab north.
3. Oil Discovery: New oil reserves found in southern regions heightened competition for control.
4. Ethnic and Religious Divide: Deep-rooted mistrust between Arab-Muslim northerners and African-Christian southerners.

Main Actors:

• Sudanese Government (Khartoum) led by successive northern regimes.
• Sudan People’s Liberation Army (SPLA) led by Dr. John Garang de Mabior, fighting for autonomy and equality, later advocating for self-determination.

Major Events:

• Formation of the Sudan People’s Liberation Movement (SPLM) as the political wing of the SPLA.
• Sudan’s military offensives caused widespread displacement; an estimated 2 million people died and 4 million were displaced.
• International concern grew over humanitarian crises, including famine and human rights abuses.

Comprehensive Peace Agreement (CPA) – 2005:

• Signed between the Sudanese Government and the SPLM/SPLA in Nairobi under international mediation.
• Key provisions included:
  1. Autonomy for Southern Sudan for six years.
  2. Power-sharing between north and south governments.
  3. Wealth-sharing agreement on oil revenues.
  4. Referendum on Independence for Southern Sudan after the interim period.
• The CPA formally ended Africa’s longest-running civil war.

Independence of South Sudan (2011)

In accordance with the 2005 agreement, a referendum on independence was held in January 2011, with nearly 99% voting in favour of separation.

• On 9 July 2011, South Sudan became an independent nation, recognised internationally.
• Salva Kiir Mayardit became the first President, while Omar al-Bashir continued as President of Sudan.

However, the promise of peace was soon overshadowed by unresolved issues.

Post-Independence Issues and Renewed Conflict

1. Border Disputes

• Key border regions remained contested, especially Abyei, South Kordofan, and Blue Nile.
• The Abyei Area, rich in oil and inhabited by the Ngok Dinka (southern) and Misseriya (northern) tribes, became a flashpoint.
• Both countries have deployed troops in border zones, violating peace agreements.

2. Oil Disputes

• About 75% of the former Sudan’s oil reserves lie in South Sudan, but export pipelines and refineries are located in the North.
• Disputes over oil transit fees led to South Sudan temporarily shutting down oil production in 2012, crippling both economies.
• Mediation by the African Union led to agreements on oil revenue sharing and demilitarised border zones.

3. Citizenship and Population Issues

• Millions of people were stranded as stateless, particularly southerners in the North and northerners in the South.
• Both governments faced challenges in managing returnees, refugees, and internally displaced persons.

4. Internal Conflicts in South Sudan

• In December 2013, a power struggle between President Salva Kiir and Vice-President Riek Machar triggered civil war within South Sudan itself.
• The conflict took on ethnic dimensions, primarily between Kiir’s Dinka community and Machar’s Nuer supporters.
• Despite peace deals, sporadic violence, human rights abuses, and famine persisted.

Regional and International Dimensions

• The African Union (AU), United Nations (UN), and regional body IGAD (Intergovernmental Authority on Development) have played central roles in mediation.
• The United States, China, and Norway were part of the “Troika” supporting the peace process.
• UNMIS (UN Mission in Sudan) and later UNMISS (UN Mission in South Sudan) were deployed to monitor ceasefires and protect civilians.

Despite peacekeeping efforts, both nations remain fragile, affected by political instability, economic dependency on oil, and humanitarian crises.

Humanitarian and Socioeconomic Impact

1. Casualties: Over 2.5 million deaths across both civil wars and conflicts since 1955.
2. Displacement: More than 4 million displaced persons and refugees in neighbouring countries (Uganda, Kenya, Ethiopia).
3. Human Rights Violations: Widespread reports of civilian massacres, child soldier recruitment, and gender-based violence.
4. Economic Crisis: Oil dependence, corruption, and conflict destroyed agriculture and infrastructure, keeping both nations among the world’s poorest.
5. Humanitarian Emergency: Severe food insecurity and famine conditions continue, particularly in South Sudan.

Peace Efforts and Current Status

• 2012: Oil-sharing and security agreements signed under AU mediation.
• 2015: South Sudan’s warring factions signed a peace deal, later followed by the Revitalized Agreement on the Resolution of the Conflict in South Sudan (2018).
• 2020–2023: Gradual formation of a unity government in South Sudan, though implementation remains fragile.
• Abyei and Border Conflicts: Still unresolved, with occasional skirmishes between Sudanese and South Sudanese forces.
• In 2023, renewed instability in Sudan’s internal politics, including conflict between the army and paramilitary forces, further threatened peace in the region.

Key Issues Remaining

1. Demarcation of Borders and Abyei Referendum
2. Fair Oil Revenue Sharing
3. Demilitarisation and Border Security
4. Governance and Corruption in South Sudan
5. Humanitarian Aid and Refugee Resettlement
6. Reconciliation and Transitional Justice

International Lessons and Significance

The Sudan–South Sudan conflict illustrates the challenges of nation-building after decolonisation, especially where ethnic, religious, and resource divisions coincide. It highlights:

• The limits of externally brokered peace without strong domestic institutions.
• The dangers of resource dependency (“resource curse”).
• The importance of inclusive governance and equitable development in post-conflict societies.