Rise of Misals in Punjab

The Rise of Misals in Punjab marks a crucial phase in the history of the Sikh community during the eighteenth century, following the decline of the Mughal Empire. The Misal period, roughly spanning from 1716 to 1799, witnessed the transformation of the Sikh community from a persecuted religious group into a powerful political and military force. The term Misal refers to a confederacy or group of warriors united under a common banner, and the emergence of these Misals laid the foundation for the later unification of Punjab under Maharaja Ranjit Singh.

Historical Background

The decline of Mughal authority after the death of Aurangzeb (1707) created a political vacuum across northern India. In Punjab, Mughal oppression against the Sikhs intensified, particularly after the execution of Guru Tegh Bahadur (1675) and the martyrdom of Guru Gobind Singh’s sons during the late seventeenth century. Despite these hardships, Guru Gobind Singh’s creation of the Khalsa (1699) had infused the Sikhs with a new martial and religious identity.
After Guru Gobind Singh’s death in 1708, his disciple Banda Singh Bahadur led the Sikhs in armed resistance against Mughal rule. Although Banda Singh established short-lived control over parts of Punjab, he was captured and executed in 1716. The subsequent decades saw renewed persecution, pushing the Sikhs into the forests, deserts, and hills. However, this period of hardship only strengthened their unity and resilience.

Formation of the Misals

During the mid-eighteenth century, as Mughal power weakened further and Afghan invasions under Ahmad Shah Durrani (Abdali) devastated northern India, the Sikhs reorganised themselves into Misals — independent warrior confederacies. These groups evolved from the Dal Khalsa, a loose military federation of the Khalsa Sikhs.
Each Misal consisted of a band of warriors (jathas) led by a Misaldar or chief, and together they formed a collective power known as the Sarbat Khalsa (general assembly of the Sikhs). The Sarbat Khalsa would meet at Amritsar on important religious occasions to make collective decisions and elect a Supreme Leader (Jathedar).
By the middle of the eighteenth century, twelve principal Misals had emerged, controlling different territories of Punjab:

1. Ahluwalia Misal – led by Jassa Singh Ahluwalia, based around Kapurthala.
2. Bhangi Misal – one of the strongest, controlling Lahore and Amritsar at its height.
3. Ramgarhia Misal – led by Jassa Singh Ramgarhia, known for engineering skills and fortifications.
4. Kanhiya Misal – led by Jai Singh Kanhiya, dominant in Gurdaspur and parts of Jammu.
5. Sukerchakia Misal – led by Charat Singh, grandfather of Maharaja Ranjit Singh, based in Gujranwala.
6. Nakai Misal – controlling areas south of Lahore, including Kasur.
7. Dallewalia Misal – led by Gulab Singh, controlling Jalandhar Doab.
8. Phulkian Misal – centred in Patiala, Jind, and Nabha.
9. Singhpuria (Faizulpuria) Misal – founded by Nawab Kapur Singh.
10. Nishanwalia Misal – responsible for carrying the Sikh flag in battle.
11. Shahid (Martyr) Misal – noted for religious zeal and sacrifice.
12. Karor Singhia Misal – named after its founder Karor Singh.

These Misals collectively controlled vast parts of Punjab and acted independently, though they shared religious solidarity and mutual defence against external threats.

Political and Military Organisation

The Misals were primarily military confederacies but maintained elements of governance within their territories. Their structure was semi-democratic, as leaders were often chosen by merit and consent rather than hereditary rule. Each Misaldar maintained his own army, collected revenue, and administered justice based on Sikh principles.
The Dal Khalsa functioned as a unifying body, with the Misals combining their forces for major campaigns against the Mughals, Afghans, or local rivals. The concept of Gurmata (collective resolution) was central to their decision-making — decisions made by the Sarbat Khalsa were binding upon all Sikhs.
The Misals operated under a code of honour that prohibited the plundering of Sikh villages and emphasised the protection of women and religious places. They were also known for their guerrilla tactics, mobility, and resilience, which enabled them to withstand repeated invasions by Ahmad Shah Durrani between 1748 and 1767.

Conflict with the Afghans and the Mughals

Throughout the mid-eighteenth century, the Sikhs faced numerous invasions by Ahmad Shah Durrani, who sought to re-establish Afghan dominance in Punjab. Despite repeated massacres, such as the Wadda Ghallughara (Great Massacre) of 1762, in which thousands of Sikhs were killed, the community revived rapidly. Within months of each defeat, the Misals regrouped and recaptured lost territories, demonstrating extraordinary resilience.
By the late 1760s, the Sikhs had become the dominant power in Punjab. They seized Lahore (1765) and began issuing coins in the name of the Khalsa, symbolising sovereignty. The Misals expanded their control over the Doabs (land between rivers), Majha, Malwa, and Doaba regions, replacing Mughal and Afghan authority.

Social and Economic Impact

The rise of the Misals brought stability to Punjab after decades of chaos and invasions. Their governance was generally marked by religious tolerance and justice. Sikh rulers promoted agriculture, rebuilt towns, and restored trade routes destroyed during earlier conflicts.
The Misals also promoted Langar (community kitchens) and Gurdwaras, reinforcing Sikh religious and social institutions. They fostered a sense of collective identity among the people, blurring distinctions of caste and region.

Decline and Unification under Ranjit Singh

While the Misals collectively defended Sikh interests, rivalry and territorial ambition among them led to frequent conflicts. The Bhangi, Kanhiya, and Sukerchakia Misals, in particular, often fought for control over Lahore and Amritsar.
The process of unification began under Maharaja Ranjit Singh, the leader of the Sukerchakia Misal, who emerged as the most powerful Sikh chief after 1790. In 1799, Ranjit Singh captured Lahore and declared himself Maharaja of Punjab in 1801, marking the end of the Misal era and the beginning of the Sikh Empire.
Through diplomacy and military conquest, Ranjit Singh subdued the other Misals, bringing them under a centralised authority and establishing a unified and modernised state.