Overview of Global Environmental Agreements

The devastating impacts of industrialization and wartime activities through the late 19th and early 20th centuries sparked early efforts to establish environmental protections through international cooperation and arrangements. However, the modern framework of global environmental treaties traces back to the period following World War II.

In 1900, a Convention for the Preservation of Animals, Birds and Fish in Africa was adopted by European colonizers to regulate hunting and fishing of vulnerable species. This colonial-driven treaty provided a baseline for future wildlife conservation agreements.

In the 1930s and 1940s, a series of early conventions on wildlife preservation occurred regionally. These included a 1933 pan-American convention on flora and fauna protections and the 1940 Western Hemisphere Convention on Nature Protection and Wildlife Preservation which called for habitat conservation cooperation in the Americas. The decades of 1940s and 50s saw the first modern global environmental agreements come into force, signalling wider recognition of planetary-scale ecological threats beginning with Convention for the Regulation of Whaling.

1944 – Convention for the Regulation of Whaling

The International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling was signed in 1944 and established the International Whaling Commission (IWC). Commercial whaling had devastated global whale populations, with over 2 million whales killed in the 1930s alone. The convention instituted protections for vulnerable species, designated whale sanctuaries, set limits on hunting seasons and catch quantities, and funded whale population research. Despite ongoing tensions between pro- and anti-whaling nations, the IWC has achieved measured success in allowing some whale stocks to recover.

1959 – Antarctic Treaty

The 1959 Antarctic Treaty set aside Antarctica as a scientific reserve, established freedom of scientific investigation and banned military activity on the continent. It was signed during the Cold War era by 12 countries active in Antarctica at the time.

Since coming into force in 1961, the treaty has fostered peaceful international cooperation and scientific research around Antarctica and the Southern Ocean.

It designated Antarctica as a nuclear-free zone and progressive agreements under the treaty have established environmental protections and conservation measures in the region. To date, over 50 nations have signed onto the Antarctic Treaty.

1963 – Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty

The 1963 Partial Test Ban Treaty prohibited nuclear weapons testing in the atmosphere, outer space and under water. It was signed by the United States, Soviet Union and United Kingdom during the Cold War era amidst growing public fears over radioactive fallout from open-air tests.

While the treaty did not ban underground testing, it helped reduce the occurrence of nuclear pollution and radioactive contamination globally. It also represented an early effort towards nuclear non-proliferation and disarmament.

1971 – Ramsar Convention on Wetlands

The Ramsar Convention provides the framework for national commitments and international cooperation for conserving and wisely using wetland ecosystems. Adopted in 1971 in the Iranian city of Ramsar, it emphasizes sustainable use, cross-border wetlands preservation and national planning as central pillars. A key outcome is support for designation of over 2,300 Ramsar Sites which serve as biodiversity hotspots, a large surface area now under improved management. Ramsar remains indispensable in promoting wetlands as vital yet highly threatened ecosystems providing rich services.

1972 – London Convention on Marine Pollution

The 1972 London Convention on marine pollution aimed to stem the practice of dumping industrial, municipal and radioactive waste directly into the ocean. Signed by a majority of maritime nations, it designated allowable materials and banned dumping of the most hazardous wastes.

While not fully effective against illegal ocean dumping, it increased transparency, established permit procedures, and began shifting waste management norms. Amendments in 1978 and 1996 further strengthened waste restrictions.

1973 – CITES

The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) regulates cross-border trade of plants, animals and derived products to prevent overexploitation of threatened species.

Signed by 80 nations in 1973, CITES protects over 30,000 species via import/export controls and permits. As a pillar of international wildlife conservation policy, CITES listings help limit trade, create transparency, fund wildlife research and uphold countries’ shared responsibility to guard global biodiversity.

1973 – Basel Convention

The Basel Convention on Hazardous Waste prevents wealthy nations from offloading hazardous waste cheaply onto less developed countries lacking capacity to manage it safely.

Opened for ratification in 1989, it established notice and consent requirements before hazardous waste shipments can occur between countries. Although the US has not ratified, nearly all other nations have signed. When coupled with the London Convention’s transport rules, the Basel Convention has achieved moderate success in controlling unsafe dumping globally.

1979 – Bonn Convention on Migratory Species

The Bonn Convention works to conserve terrestrial, marine and avian migratory species across their entire migratory range. Adopted in 1979 and coming into force in 1983, it recognizes species migrations transcend borders and habitat loss in any one country can impact the fate of that migratory route. Contracting parties work cooperatively on habitat restoration, mitigating obstacles to migration, research and impactful threat reduction policies. Targeted agreements under the CMS also focus conservation for species as diverse as gorillas, sharks and albatrosses.

1985 – Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer

Adopted in 1985, the Vienna Convention established an international framework for cooperation on policies protecting the ozone layer. While non-binding itself, it paved the way for the pivotal 1987 Montreal Protocol where concrete actions were agreed.

The Convention called for research cooperation and information exchange around ozone depletion, which was only just realizing as a global threat at that time.

By formalizing commitment to address the issue, it enabled rapid negotiations towards the Montreal Protocol’s binding reduction targets.

1987 – Montreal Protocol

The 1987 Montreal Protocol mandated national and global reductions in emissions of ozone-depleting substances like CFCs. Today universally ratified, it has been hugely effective, with over 99% of targeted substances phased out and the ozone layer now recovering.

Heralded as perhaps the most successful environmental treaty ever, the Montreal Protocol has also curbed global warming due to its phase out of potent heat-trapping gases. Its implementation pathway and multilateral fund became a model for future accords.

1992 – UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)

The 1992 UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) provides an overarching foundation for global cooperation and policymaking around climate change.

With universality nearly achieved, it has developed shared commitments for emissions inventories, mitigation programs, climate finance, and regular treaty conferences which have built common ground amid complex politics.

While slow to achieve binding action via the Kyoto Protocol and Paris Agreement, the UNFCCC’s role as a framework binding high-emitters into joint dialogue has catalyzed progress over time.

1992 – Convention on Biological Diversity

The UN Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) is a landmark agreement aiming to sustainably conserve and ensure equitable use of the planet’s living resources.

Globally ratified except for the US, its goals address ecosystem protections, threatened species preservation and fair sharing of genetic resource benefits. Through regular COP meetings and guiding principles like the ecosystem approach, it has influenced national biodiversity strategies and environmental impact best practices globally across forestry, agriculture, fisheries and other key sectors over past decades.

1997 – Kyoto Protocol

The 1997 Kyoto Protocol operationalized the UNFCCC by committing developed nations to legally binding greenhouse gas reduction targets averaging 5% below 1990 levels by 2012, establishing carbon trading systems and beginning climate finance flows to developing countries.

Despite challenges in ratification and meeting targets, Kyoto kicked off substantive global climate mitigation efforts and debates around equity that carried forward into the Paris Agreement.

Its baseline experience directly informed enhancement and expansion of emissions pledges from major economies in more recent years.

2005 – Kyoto Protocol Commitment Period

After struggling to obtain ratification from key signatories like Russia, the Kyoto Protocol finally came into legal force in 2005, kicking off its first commitment period binding developed nations to greenhouse gas reductions through 2012. While criticized by some nations like the US who opted out, Kyoto compelled mandated countries to implement fledgling carbon pricing programs, clean energy investments and climate mitigation funds that paved experience for more ambitious targets in the 2015 Paris Agreement.

2010 – Nagoya Protocol

The Nagoya Protocol to the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) provides a binding framework governing equitable access to and distribution of benefits from genetic resources. By establishing terms requiring prior informed consent and benefit-sharing agreements with indigenous groups and biodiverse developing nations, it limits “biopiracy” of resources like plant genetic material. Though complex to implement fully, the protocol has strengthened trust in research partnerships and capacity in nations rich in biodiversity but lacking legal protections.

2016 – Paris Agreement

The landmark 2015 Paris Agreement under the UNFCCC established universal but differentiated legal commitments from virtually all nations to reduce emissions and strengthen climate resilience. Requiring transparent emissions reporting and 5-year cycles to escalate nationally-determined targets, Paris moved beyond Kyoto to drive economy-wide decarbonization globally. Combined with provisions on climate finance, adaptation, loss and damage, Paris aligned key players behind a cooperative long-term vision to constrain warming “well below” 2°C though much work remains to fully activate agreements made.

2016 – Kigali Amendment to Montreal Protocol

The Kigali Amendment added a phase down schedule for hydrofluorocarbon (HFC) gases to the Montreal Protocol. Though not ozone depleting substances, HFCs’ heat trapping ability made them dangerous climate pollutants in growing use as refrigerants. The landmark amendment leveraged the Protocol’s existing framework to leapfrog these chemicals with more sustainable alternatives, avoiding up to 0.5°C of warming. With HFC reduction commitments now in force across developed and developing world, it displayed promise for multilateral climate progress even as UNFCCC negotiations continue.

2017 – UN Ocean Conference Call for Action

The 2017 UN Ocean Conference adopted a Call for Action to spur progress on Sustainable Development Goal #14 focused on conserving the oceans. With science signaling alarming declines across marine ecosystems and resources, the Call for Action compiled commitments from governments, civil society and the private sector to stimulate policy enhancements, finance streams and stakeholder initiatives around issues from acidification to overfishing. While loosely framed, its symbolic value catalysed momentum and accountability around perceived lags in global ocean governance.