Mutiny of 1857

In 1856, Lord Canning took office as last Governor General of India under the East India Company. The Mutiny of 1857 ended East India Company’s rule in India and brought Indian directly under the British monarch.

Reasons of Mutiny

The key reasons for mutiny were as follows:

Pathetic Socioeconomic Condition

Not a shilling was spent from the British treasury on the defense of the India. The sever famines which devoured millions of people remained issues, that were never addressed. The tenure of Dalhousie was pathetic as far as concerns of the Indian natives are concerned. The feelings of the unrest that was growing among the Indians finally got manifested in the form of revolt of 1857.

The Indian public which does not like sudden changes was applied with the new laws and customs which were anathema to the Indian society. Some of them were allowing the widows to remarry, abolishing practice of Sati ^{(which was considered revered at that time)} , establishing the land revenue systems which never existed before.Widows Remarriage Act was introduced by Lord Dalhousie, but it was approved by Lord Canning in 1856. The Hindus saw it as a sequel to the Abolition of Sati (Regulation XVII) and took it as a threat to Hinduism.

Problems of Land Revenue

The Ryotwari and Mahalwari system demanded the revenue which was exorbitant and methods of collecting the revenue were cruel. In 1852, the Inam commission was established which recommended the takeover of the Jagirs on which the revenue was not paid. The result was that twenty thousand Jagirs had been confiscated.

Destruction of Economy

The Economic drain also destroyed the Indian Industry, disintegrating the traditional fabric of the country. The Industrial revolution of England made the machines devourers of Indian Raw material and destroyed the Foreign Trade of the country. India was reduced to a mere exporter of the raw materials.

Low position in Administration

Indians were debarred from the important and high posts in their own country. The notorious signboards ‘Dogs and Indians not allowed’ were common in the British places of activities in India.

Doctrine of Lapse

The annexation of Satara, Nagpur, Jhansi, Sambhalpur, Karauli, Udaipur, Baghat etc. by the notorious Doctrine of Lapse caused the general hateful sentiments among the Indian public. In Nagpur, there was an open auction of the Royal belongings.

Ill-treatment with Bahadur Shah Zafar

The name of Bahadur Shah Zafar was removed from the coins during the times of Lord Ellenborough. He was ordered by Lord Dalhousie to vacate the Red Fort and shift to the Mahrauli area outside Delhi. By this time the people of India had become nostalgic about the Mughal rule and wanted to see Bahadur Shah Emperor of India. Lord Canning announced that after Bahadur Shah, the Mughal successors would not be called emperor and their status would be reduced to Prince.

Annexation of Oudh

The annexation of the so far loyal state of Oudh created general panic and disaffection contrary to the British belief that it was done for removing the “misrule and administration irregularities”.

Police and Judiciary

The Judiciary was biased. The British officers were hated and considered aliens in the land of Hindus and Muslims. The people were loathful of the oppressive loot of the officers, including British appointed Indian Daroghas.

Christian Missionaries

The increased activities of the Christian missionaries were seen with suspicion and mistrust. The tried their best to convert as many people they could and indulged in the false propaganda against the faiths and religions of Hindus and Muslims. The Padris were appointed in the army to “teach” the sepoys about Christianity.

Education

The education policy was not taken positively in Indian public. They thought that the new schools opened by the British and where the “English” is taught will convert their sons to “Christians”.

Discrimination with Sepoys

The Indian sepoys were victims of discrimination. They were paid low wages and faced constant verbal and physical abuses from their bosses. The annexation of Oudh in 1856 created discontent in the Bengal army.  The Indian sepoys were chaffed of the new customs which forbade them putting caste marks on their foreheads, keeping beards and wearing turbans.

Santhal rebellion 1855-56

The Santhal rebellion predates 1857. It was a rebellion of Santhal people led by 4 Murmu Brothers named Sindhu, Kanhu , Chand and Bhairav, in modern Jharkhand (then Bengal Presidency) against the oppressive Zamindari system. The initially launched Guerilla warfare in the Jungles of Jharkhand. The British trapped these outstanding archers and killed them in a battle. The Santhal villages were plundered and the rebellion was brutally subdued.

 The cause of Nana Sahib 1854-55

Nana Sahib was the adopted son of Last Peshwa Baji Rao II who had been retired to Bithoor, after the Third Anglo Maratha War. Baji Rao was receiving the pension of Rupees Eight Lakh per annum from the British. When he died, Nana Sahib was to get this pension as heir-presumptive to the throne. But the company stopped the pension on the ground that he was not a natural born heir. Nana Sahib sent his friend and envoy Azimullah Khan to England in 1853 to plead his cause but the British were not convinced. The result was that he conspired against the British and led the revolt at Kanpur.

Azimullah Khan – The envoy to England

So far, Azimullah Khan, who was prime minister to Nana Sahib, was an English lover. But at England, he could not plead the cause of Nana Sahib and while returning from England, he got an opportunity to visit Constantinople, in the Ottoman Empire. He visited the sites of the Crimean war and was able to look at the exhausted British soldiers returning. He also tried to get in touch with the Turkish and Russian spies.

Tantya Tope – The rescuer of Laxmibai

His name was Ramachandra Pandurang Tope and he was friend of Nana Sahib. After the Kanpur was preoccupied by the British, he went to Gwalior, where he rescued Laxmibai. But the forces of British defeated him and executed him at Shivpuri.

Major Events of the mutiny

Introduction of Pattern 1853 Enfield Musket

On the New Year day of 1857, a new Enfield (P 1853) rifle was issued in India to the 60th Queen’s Royal Rifles in Meerut.

The cartridges of this rifle had a paper cover that had to be bitten off before loading in the rifle. It was accepted by some British officials that the papers and the grease inside is composed of the beef and pig fat.

This was taken as destroying their religion. On 22 January 1857, at the Dum Dum arsenal near Calcutta the natives expressed concern regarding the use of the greased cartridge required by the new rifle and a consequent threat to Hindu and Muslim religions.

The military drills of the time needed the sepoys to bite off the cartridge, pour the gunpowder from within to down the barrel, then ram the cartridge, which included the bullet, then remove the ram-rod, then bring the rifle to the ready and set the sights and fire. The “user guide” said:

“Whenever the grease around the bullet appears to be melted away, or otherwise removed from the cartridge, the sides of the bullet should be wetted in the mouth before putting it into the barrel; the saliva will serve the purpose of grease for the time being”.

From January to May, the wave of dissatisfaction touched various British Cantonments. The most awful sentiments were in the cantonments of Meerut, Barrackpur and Ambala.

Use of Chapattis

All of a sudden, the English officials could see passing of the Chapattis, usually by the village chaukidars and watchmen throughout the north India. The first report was issued in February 1857 by Magistrate of Gurgaon that these Chapattis may be a portent of a general disturbance coming up and signify the joining of the people. The magistrate was true in his interpretation, but it was realized later only.

March 1857: Refusal to accept greased cartridge

By 9 March 1857, the Sepoys of the 19th Bengal Native Infantry at Behrampur refused to accept the greased cartridges. A court martial was done and the regiment was disarmed. On 23 March General Greg Anson, Commander in Chief, India, issued an order suspending the use and firing of the greased cartridges throughout India until a special report is received from Meerut.

29 March 1857 – Mutiny at Barrackpur – Mangal Pandey

At Barrackpur, Mangal Pandey of the 34th Bengal Native Infantry went on a rampage wounding the British Officers. The mutiny was basically a “One Man Show”. Mangal Pandey was hanged on 8 April 1857, thus becoming one of the first martyrs of mother India’s liberation war that extended 90 years afterwards. One more officer Issurl Pandey was hanged on 11 April for not helping the British during the rampage. One Paltu Khan was promoted for his active duty towards stopping Mangal Pandey creates more havoc.

Mutiny at Meerut  – 10 May 1857

85 Sepoys of the 20th and 11th Bengal Infantry regiments and 3rd Indian Light Cavalry mutinied. The broke out in open rebellion, shouted “Delhi Chalo”, proceeded to Delhi, over threw the British Rule, massacred any European that came their way, Proclaimed Bahadur Shah Zafar as Emperor of India. Col. Ripley was killed at Delhi. The public welcomed the soldiers and supported the revolt. The son of Bahadur Shah Zafar, Mirza Zahiruddin was declared commander in chief, despite no military experience.

Later the command at Delhi was taken by Bakht Khan, the nominal commander chief of the rebels at Delhi who later died in the battle in 1859.

The Mutiny Spreads – May 1857

On 12 May 1857, a company of the 81st infantry captured the fort of Govindgarh near Amritsar. The mutiny spread to Lahore where Mian Mir fought the mutineers and saved the Lahore from falling to the Mutineers.

On 14 May 1857, Lord Canning issued orders for the 43rd Queen Regiment and 1st Madras Fusiliers to embark immediately to Calcutta.

Lord Canning telegraphed Lord Elphinstone, the Governor of Bombay to send British Forces immediately. He also sent transport to bring the British forces back from Pegu in Burma. On 16 May 1857, 50 Europeans rounded up in Delhi were massacred by the crowd. On 16 May, Lord Canning sent a letter to Lord Elgin at Singapore to send troops at Calcutta. The rebellion spread to Lucknow, Allahabad, Kanpur, Bareili, Banaras, and Jhansi very soon.

The siege of Cawnpore

Siege of Cawnpore is also known as “Bibighar Massacre or “Satichaura Ghat massacre”.

Before this event the British had approached Nana Sahib and ‘convinced’ him to support in case there is a mutiny at Kanpur. By June 1857, the number of the rebellions got 3000. The place was mistaken as safe by the British, European families began to drift into the entrenchment as the news of rebellion in the nearby areas reached them. The entrenchment was fortified. Nana Sahib entered as a friend of the British inside and declared that he was with the rebels. he proceeded with the soldiers to capture Cawnpore. He made the British officers surrender on a promise of safe passage to Allahabad. Cawnpore was in siege till 15 July 1857 and 200 Europeans including women and children were massacred.

On 16 July the British Forces arrived and Cawnpore was recaptured. Nana Sahib disappeared and then fled to Nepal in 1859.

Mutiny at Lucknow: Begum Hazrat Mahal

Begum Hazrat Mahal was the first wife of recently deposed Nawab Wajid Ali Shah. She led the rebels at Lucknow and was able to siege Lucknow. Her son Birjis Qadra was declared King of Awadh. But when the British were able to destroy the rebels, she fled to Nepal, where she took asylum and died in obscurity in 1879.

Mutiny at Gwalior: Tantya Tope

With the aid of the rebels at Gwalior he was able to compel General Windham hard at Cawnpore on the 27th and 28th of November 1857. But later was defeated by Sir Colin Campbell on the 6th of December. Together with the Rani of Jhansi he was besieged by Sir Hugh Rose in the Jhansi fort, but escaped and collected a force of 20,000 men which Sir Hugh defeated without relaxing the siege. After this he sought refuge in the jungles of Bundelkhand, and later captured and executed in 1859.

Mutiny at Jhansi – Rani Laxmi Bai

Jhansi was relatively calm in 1857, but British troops arrived under Hugh Rose and laid siege to Jhansi on 23 March 1858 and asked Laxmi Bai to surrender. She did not surrender and the fight began which continued for 2 weeks.  Later her army was joined by Tantya Tope’s troops, but the British were able to capture Jhansi by 31 March. Laxmi Bai escaped over the wall at night and fled from her city, surrounded by her guards. Along with her young adopted son Anand Rao, she decamped to Kalpi. Both Nana and Laxmibai moved on to Gwalior and occupied the fort of Gwalior. But on 17 June, 1858, she died in the battle.  The British captured Gwalior three days later. Her father, Moropant Tambey, was captured and hanged a few days after the fall of Jhansi. Anand Rao, was given a pension by the British Raj.

Mutiny in Arrah – Kunwar Singh

A band of rebels was led by Kunwar Singh at Arrah in Bihar. Despite his old age (near 80) he had a good fight and harried British forces for nearly one year and remained invincible till the end. But he was defeated by William Taylor and Eyre and died in the battle.

Recapturing

Bahadur Shah was arrested. British general Hudson shot dead his two sons and he was exported to Rangoon where he died 1862. The imam of Bauli kalandar led the revolt in Panipat. He was captured and hanged. General Hewitt commanded the Forces at Meerut.  Delhi was recaptured by Sir John Nicholson.  Colin Campbell recaptured Kanpur.  General Havelock defeated Nana Sahib.

Role of Princely states

The princely states did not participate in the mutiny and as per Lord Canning, the princely rulers proved to be a barrier to stop this hurricane.

Those who helped British

Holkar of Indore remained with the British. Man Singh at Gwalior deceived Tantya Tope and Laxmibai. Nizam of Hyderabad, Gulab Singh of Kashmir, Sikh rulers of Patiala, Nabha and Jind also remained loyal to British. The Sikhs detest towards the Mughals was the main reason behind their remaining against the mutineers.

Dinkar Rao of Gwalior and Salar Jang of Hyderabad were “praised” by the British for their loyalty to the Government. Zamindars, Land Lords, Money lenders, Big Traders remained loyal to the East India Company. The elite “educated” class of Indians remained indifferent. Railways, Telegraph and Postal services, which were initiated by Lord Dalhousie saved India for British from the hands of Indians.

Leaders of Revolt

• Delhi : Bahadur Shah Zafar and Bakht Khan
• Jhansi : Rani Laxmi Bai
• Bihar : Kunwar Singh
• Mathura : Devi Singh
• Meerut : Kadam Singh
• Faizabad : Muhammad Ullah
• Kanpur: Nana sahib, Tantya Tope and Azimullah Khan
• Allahabad : Liaqat Ali
• Gwalior : Tantya Tope
• Haryana : Rao Tularam
• Sambhalpur : Surender Sai
• Bareli: Khan Bahadur Khan
• Satara: Rango Bapuji Gupte
• Hyderabad : Sonaji pant
• Karnataka: Maulavi Sayyed Allauddin, Bhimrao Mundargi And Chhota Singh
• Kolhapur : Annaji Phandnavis and Tatya Mohite
• Madras: Ghulam Gaus and Sultan Baksh
• Chengalpattu: Annagirian Krishna
• Coiambatore: Mulbagal Swami

Who said what about this mutiny?

• Charles Raikes: Merely a mutiny of the soldiers, which took the shape of revolt of the people in certain areas.
• Sir J.W. Kaye : A battle of Blacks against the Whites
• T R Holmes: A conflict between civilization and barbarism
• V D Savarkar: India’s planned war of Independence.
• Karl Marx: Struggle of soldiers, peasants and democratic combine against the foreign and feudal bondage.
• Rees: a war of Fanatic religionists against the Christians
• R C Mazumadar: “Neither first, nor national not war of independence.”
• Hutchinson: It began as a mutiny and became a popular rebellion.
• J L Nehru: a feudal outburst headed by feudal chiefs and their followers aided by widespread anti-foreign sentiments.
• S N Sen: began with a fight for religion, ended with a war for independence.

After the Mutiny of 1857, Peace was restored in a period of more than one year and the most important outcome was that the Government of India passed from the Company to the Crown.