Marathas after Shivaji

The death of Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj in 1680 CE marked the end of one of the most dynamic reigns in Indian history. Shivaji had laid the foundations of a powerful and independent Maratha kingdom based on efficient administration, disciplined military organisation, and a spirit of nationalism that challenged Mughal domination. However, his death led to a period of instability, internal rivalry, and protracted conflict before the Marathas ultimately revived and expanded their power to become the most dominant force in eighteenth-century India.

Immediate Succession and Early Conflicts

After Shivaji’s death, the question of succession led to internal discord within the royal family.

1. Sambhaji (r. 1681–1689)

• Sambhaji, Shivaji’s elder son, succeeded him after overcoming opposition from his stepmother Soyarabai, who wanted her son Rajaram to be king.
• Sambhaji was a capable but impetuous ruler, continuing his father’s policy of resisting the Mughals and maintaining Maratha independence.

Conflict with the Mughals:

• The Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb launched a massive invasion of the Deccan in 1681 to subdue the Marathas.
• Sambhaji bravely resisted the Mughals for several years and even inflicted defeats on them in early battles.
• In 1689, he was captured by the Mughals at Sangameshwar, brutally tortured, and executed at Tulapur.

Sambhaji’s martyrdom inspired later Marathas to continue the struggle for freedom.

2. Rajaram (r. 1689–1700)

After Sambhaji’s death, his half-brother Rajaram ascended the throne and shifted the capital to Jinji (in Tamil Nadu) to escape Mughal pursuit. This move turned out to be a strategic success, as it extended Maratha resistance deep into the south.

• The Mughal siege of Jinji (1690–1698) was one of the longest in Indian history but failed to break Maratha resistance.
• During this period, Maratha generals such as Santaji Ghorpade and Dhanaji Jadhav conducted brilliant guerrilla campaigns, harassing Mughal supply lines and exhausting Aurangzeb’s forces.

Rajaram died in 1700, but by then, the Maratha war machine had become decentralised and resilient, capable of continuing the fight independently.

3. Tarabai’s Regency (1700–1707)

After Rajaram’s death, his widow Tarabai assumed leadership as regent for her infant son Shivaji II.

• Tarabai proved to be one of the most capable leaders of her time. She organised the administration, inspired the Maratha forces, and continued guerrilla warfare against Aurangzeb.
• Under her leadership, the Marathas gradually regained territory and prestige.

When Aurangzeb died in 1707, the Mughal Empire was militarily exhausted and financially drained, while the Marathas had emerged stronger through relentless warfare.

Restoration under Shahu and the Rise of the Peshwas

The death of Aurangzeb ushered in a new phase of Maratha consolidation and expansion under a more centralised administrative system.

1. Shahu Maharaj (r. 1707–1749)

Shahu, the son of Sambhaji, had been captured by the Mughals in 1689 and held prisoner for nearly 18 years. After Aurangzeb’s death, the Mughals released him to create divisions among the Marathas.
However, Shahu established his legitimacy after defeating Tarabai’s forces at the Battle of Khed (1707). He then reorganised the Maratha state with a focus on political stability and institutional reform.

Emergence of the Peshwas

Shahu delegated administrative authority to his Peshwas (prime ministers), who gradually became the de facto heads of the Maratha Empire.

• Balaji Vishwanath (Peshwa 1713–1720):
  • He restored internal unity and established the system of Chauth and Sardeshmukhi, by which the Marathas collected revenue from Mughal territories.
  • He negotiated with Mughal Emperor Farrukhsiyar, securing the recognition of Shahu’s authority over the Deccan in 1719.
  • This marked the beginning of the Maratha Confederacy, with semi-autonomous chiefs governing different regions under Shahu’s nominal leadership.

Expansion under the Peshwas

Under the leadership of successive Peshwas, the Maratha Empire expanded rapidly, extending its influence from the Deccan to the northern plains.

1. Baji Rao I (1720–1740)

• Baji Rao I, son of Balaji Vishwanath, was one of the most brilliant military strategists in Indian history.
• He transformed the Marathas from a regional power into a pan-Indian force through swift cavalry movements and daring campaigns.
• His famous declaration, “Let us strike at the trunk of the withering tree (the Mughal Empire), not at the branches,” reflected his vision of replacing Mughal supremacy with Maratha leadership.

Major Achievements:

• Successful campaigns in Malwa, Bundelkhand, and Gujarat.
• Alliance with Chhatrasal of Bundelkhand, gaining territory and wealth.
• Captured Delhi (1737) and forced the Mughals to recognise Maratha dominance.
• Strengthened Maratha administration and revenue collection.

Baji Rao I was instrumental in transforming the Marathas into the most formidable military power in India.

2. Balaji Baji Rao (Nana Saheb) (1740–1761)

Balaji Baji Rao, popularly known as Nana Saheb, succeeded his father and continued the policy of expansion but faced growing internal and external challenges.
Key Developments:

• Consolidation of Maratha authority in Central and Northern India.
• The rise of semi-independent Maratha chiefs, including the Scindias (Gwalior), Holkars (Indore), Gaekwads (Baroda), and Bhonsles (Nagpur), who administered different regions under a confederate system.
• Interference in the politics of the Mughal court, where Marathas acted as kingmakers.
• The Anglo-French rivalry in South India and the growing influence of the British East India Company began to alter the balance of power.

However, Nana Saheb’s ambitions to dominate the north brought the Marathas into conflict with Ahmad Shah Durrani (Abdali), culminating in the Third Battle of Panipat (1761).

The Third Battle of Panipat (1761)

• The battle was fought on 14 January 1761 between the Marathas, led by Sadashiv Rao Bhau, and the Afghan forces of Ahmad Shah Durrani.
• The Marathas, who had advanced deep into north India, were defeated after a brutal and decisive confrontation.
• The battle resulted in catastrophic losses for the Marathas—tens of thousands were killed, and many leading generals perished.

Consequences:

• The Maratha Empire’s expansion was temporarily halted.
• Power in northern India fragmented, creating a vacuum later filled by the British East India Company.
• The defeat marked the end of the Marathas’ dream of all-India supremacy but did not destroy their political vitality.

Revival and the Maratha Confederacy (1761–1818)

After Panipat, the Marathas quickly regrouped and reasserted their influence under Madhav Rao I (1761–1772), one of the most capable Peshwas.

Madhav Rao I (1761–1772)

• Restored administrative order and rebuilt military strength.
• Recovered territories lost after Panipat.
• Strengthened Maratha influence in the south and central India.
• His efficient governance revived Maratha prestige and stability.

After Madhav Rao’s death, internal divisions among the Maratha chiefs (Scindias, Holkars, and Bhonsles) weakened the confederacy.

The Marathas and the British

By the late eighteenth century, the British East India Company had become a major political force. The Marathas, divided among competing chiefs, fought several wars against the British known as the Anglo-Maratha Wars.

1. First Anglo-Maratha War (1775–1782): Ended with the Treaty of Salbai, recognising Madhav Rao II as Peshwa.
2. Second Anglo-Maratha War (1803–1805): Resulted in significant Maratha territorial losses.
3. Third Anglo-Maratha War (1817–1818): Marked the final defeat of the Marathas and the abolition of the Peshwaship.

In 1818, the British formally annexed Maratha territories, and the last Peshwa, Baji Rao II, was pensioned off to Bithur near Kanpur.