Classification of the Prehistoric Period

Prehistoric period refers to the period of human history between the first known use of stone tools by hominins around 3.3 million years ago till the advent of writing systems.  The Stone Age, which lasted roughly 2.5 to 3.3 million years, ended around 5,000 years ago when humans began working with metal and making tools and weapons from bronze.  The prehistoric Bronze Age and Iron Age overlap with the historic age because of advent of writing in Bronze age.

Role of Sir John Lubbock

Prehistoric era is generally categorized into three archaeological periods viz. Stone Age, Bronze Age and Iron Age. This classification was for the first time done by Sir John Lubbock in his seminal work Pre-Historic Times (1865). He, for the first time, used terms like Paleolithic and Neolithic, and defined these terms as follows:

• Paleolithic: When man shared the possession of Europe with the Mammoth, the Cave bear, the Wooly-haired rhinoceros, and other extinct animals.
• Neolithic: The later or polished Stone age; a period characterized by beautiful weapons and instruments made of flint and other kinds of stone.
• Bronze Age: In which bronze was used for arms and cutting instruments of all kinds.
• Iron Age: In which that metal had superseded bronze for arms, axes, knives, etc. Stone weapons, however, of many kinds were still in use during the age of Bronze, and even during that of Iron. So that the mere presence of a few stone implements is not in itself sufficient evidence, that any given find belongs to the Stone age.

Because of this, Sir John Lubbock has come to be seen as one of the most influential figures in the history of prehistoric archaeology.

Stone Age (3.4 million – 3300 BC)

The Stone Age is the earliest period of human prehistory, characterized by the use of stone tools. It’s divided into three sub-periods:

• Paleolithic (3.4 million – 12,000 BC): Marked by nomadic hunter-gatherer humans, development of stone tools, control of fire, and cave art.
• Mesolithic (12,000 – 8000 BC): Transition period with more advanced tools and early sedentary lifestyles.
• Neolithic (8000 – 3300 BC): Emergence of agriculture, animal domestication, permanent settlements, and pottery.

Key developments include the evolution of Homo sapiens, cognitive advancements, and the spread of humans across continents. Stone tools progressed from simple Oldowan choppers to sophisticated Acheulean hand axes and later to microliths. The period ended with the advent of metalworking, marking the transition to the Bronze Age.

Bronze Age (3300 – 1200 BC)

The Bronze Age is defined by the widespread use of bronze, an alloy of copper and tin. It began at different times in various regions, starting in the Near East around 3300 BC. Key characteristics include:

• Development of writing systems (e.g., cuneiform, hieroglyphs)
• Rise of urban civilizations and city-states
• Expansion of trade networks
• Advancements in agriculture and irrigation
• Complex social hierarchies and specialized labour

Notable Bronze age civilizations include Sumer in Mesopotamia, Ancient Egypt, the Indus Valley Civilization, and the Shang Dynasty in China. Technological innovations included the wheel, sailing ships, and sophisticated metalworking techniques. The period saw the construction of monumental architecture like ziggurats and pyramids. It ended with widespread societal collapses around 1200 BC, leading to the Iron Age.

Iron Age (1200 BC – 500 AD)

The Iron Age is characterized by the widespread use of iron for tools and weapons. Its onset varied globally, beginning around 1200 BCE in the Near East, 800 BC in Central Europe, and later in other regions. Key features include:

• Superior iron weapons and tools, enabling better agriculture and warfare
• Emergence of powerful empires (e.g., Neo-Assyrian, Persian, Roman)
• Development of new writing systems (e.g., alphabetic scripts)
• Advancements in architecture and engineering
• Expansion of long-distance trade

The period saw significant cultural and technological exchanges, exemplified by the Silk Road. Major philosophical and religious movements emerged, including Greek philosophy, Buddhism, and Christianity. The Iron Age ended at different times globally, generally transitioning into classical antiquity or the medieval period. In Europe, it’s often considered to end with the Roman conquests.