Changes in Society during Early Medieval India

The social changes in the early medieval India were mainly the product of certain economic developments, such as land grants and large scale transfers of land revenues and land to both secular and religious elements, decline of trade and commerce, loss of mobility of artisans, peasants and traders, unequal distribution of land and power etc.

Proliferation of castes

Increasing pride of birth, characteristic of feudal society, and the accompanying self-sufficient village economy, which prevented both spatial and occupational mobility, gave rise to thousands of castes in India.

The changes in economy were also a result of emergence of certain new castes and decline of certain old ones. For example, the constant transfer of land of land revenues made by princes to priests, temples and officials led to the rise and growth of the scribe or the Kayastha caste which undermined the monopoly of Brahmans as writers and scribes.

Similarly, the decline of trade and commerce led to the decline in the position of the Vaishyas. The process of proliferation and multiplication of castes was yet another marked feature of the social life of the period.

Many new communities, which are known to us by the generic term Rajputs, were also recognized as Kshatriyas during the period. The foreign elements, which could not be put in any three higher classes, were naturally designated as the Shudras.

The guilds of artisans gradually hardened into castes due to lack of mobility in post-Guptas times. The maximum affected people were the Shudra and the mixed castes.

Position of Brahmins

The Brahmins stood at the top of the social hierarchy during and post Gupta period. They had regained their power and were responsible for reinterpreting the regulatory canons of life as laid down by the earlier texts.

However, Brahmins had numerous subsections now divided on the basis of many criteria such as knowledge of Vedas etc.

Getting birth in a Brahamin family was a privilege. Brahmins had freedom from death-sentence, exemption form taxes, precedence on the road, lesser punishment for certain offences in comparison with other castes. Many writers have documented the exemption of the Brahmans from capital punishment. The most severe punishment for a Brahmin was banishment. When a Brahman killed a man, the former had only to fast, pray and give alms. On the other hand, if somebody killed a Brahmin, he was ought to be greatest sinner and performed the worst crime. No punishment or remorse could wipe off the Brahman-hatya, the greatest crime of those periods!

Position of Vaishya

Vaishyas in the early medieval India were almost degraded to the Shudra community. In fact, Alberuni also did not find any difference between the Vaishyas and Shudra.  One difference was that the Shudra had freedom to sell all kinds of goods, but the Vaishya were forbidden to carry on transactions in some specified articles like salt, wine, meat, curds, swords, arrows, water, idols etc.

Position of Shudras

Shudras were the most numerous sections in the community and their number increased from age to age. Some of the Shudras were regarded as mixed castes, born of anulom and pratiloma marriages. There were eight Shudra castes called “Ashtashudras” viz. Vyadha, Bhada, Kola, Koncha, Haddi, Doma, Jala, Bagatita, Vyalagrahi and Chandala. However, there was another Shudra caste also whose position was lower even these eight castes. These people were called the Antyajas. These Antyajas were beyond and below the four orders and four Varnas of the Indian society.

Antyajas

In the days of the composition of the early smritis, untouchables were called Antyajas. The Vedvyasamriti counts twelve names and includes all those who eat cow’s flesh as Antyajas.

Alberuni described eight groups of people, who were members of crafts and professions, but did not belong to the four-fold caste system, namely washerman, shoemaker, juggler, basket and shield-maker, sailor, angler, hunter of wild animals and birds, and weaver. These correspond to Rajaka, Charmakara, Nata or Sailushika, Buruda, Navika, Kaivarta, Bhilla and Kuvindaka, who have been regarded as Chandals and Antyajas in all early Smriti texts  and as Shudras by Manu. Thus, they belonged to the lowest caste.

Position of Marriage & Women

The knowledge about the traditions prevalent in the institution of marriage in that era comes from two works viz. Smritichandrika and Smrityarthasara. The former says that the inter-caste marriage is forbidden in Kaliyuga. Savarna marriages are necessary for the performance of religious rites, while Asavarna marriages are of an inferior type as being dictated by desire.

The later says that the marriage of Brahmins with Shudra women forbidden not the same in other castes. The polygamy was prevalent in the royal class and has been well documented in Vaijayanti.

The women’s position is far degraded from that in early eras. The husband and other male relations, to begin with must so arrange things that the wife never becomes independent. The wife must also be  guarded not only against physical but also against mental  unchastity for the sake of her offspring. wife’s  right to maintenance in case of her supersession , they provide for her residence in her husband’s house as well as her maintenance even in the event of her committing  adultery. When the wife is guilty of slight adultery,  she must be maintained, though  deprived  of conjugal rights, till her performance of a penance.

Literature and science

During early medieval period, there was a considerable development in the literature. However, the quality of the content in them was not of a high order. It was basically of general imitative and reproductive character. The list is very big; however, here we note some of the most significant artworks.

• Naishadhiyacharitam of Shriharsha is the most outstanding epic of this period, written under the patronage of Gahadawala king Jayachandra of Kannauj.
• Rajatarangini of Kalhana is unique as the only known attempt at true history in the whole of surviving Sanskrit literature. A few short poems were also written during this period.
• The Gita-Govindam of Jayadeva is known as the most musical song ever written in Sanskrit.
• The Aryasaptashati of Govardhanacharya is an erotic poem following the tradition of Gathasaptashati of Hala
• Lalitavigraharaja-Nataka was a drama by Somadeva, the Harikeli-Nataka by Visaladeva, the Prasanna-Raghava by Jayadeva.
• In Lexicology, the Abidhana Chintamani, Deshi-Namamala, Anekarthasamgraha and Nighantushesha of Hemachandra are of worth note.
• Bhoja had written the Rajamriganka on astronomy.
• The famous mathematician Bhaskaracharya flourished in the south in the twelfth century. His Siddhanta-Shiromani comprises four parts; Lilavati, Vijaganita, Grahaganita and Gola. The last deals with astronomy.
• A very significant idea in the Siddhanta-Shiromansi is that of perpetual motion, which was transmitted by Islam about AD 1200 to Europe where in course of time it led to the development of the concept of power technology.
• The Rasarnava is a work on Tantra, which deals with metallic preparations and alchemy. The Dakarnava is a Buddhist tantric work composed in Apabhramsha. The Sadhanamala, a Buddhist tantric work belongs to the twelfth centur
• The field of erotic literature saw some development. Ratirahasya by Kokkaka, Haramekhala by Mahuka, Rativilasa  by Jayamangal etc. are some important works on Kamashastra.
• In the field of music we have Matanga, Dhatupatha as codified by Bhimasena, Kuttanimatam of Damodargupta etc.
• Bhatta utpala wrote a work on Vastuvidya.
• On cosmetics we have Gandhashatra by Padmashri in his work on erotics. The Vishnudharmottara gives much attention to painting was the chitrasutra mentioned by Damodargupta. The Aparajita-Prichcha is a work on architecture which appears to have been written in Gujarata in AD 1200. The Sangita-Ratnakara of Sharangadeva was written in the 13th century in the south. The Laghvarhannitishastra of Hemachandra is a work on political science. Another work on the duties and obligations of princes was the Rajaniti-Kamadhenu of Gopala.

Development of local cultures

The foundation of various kingdoms and fiefdoms whose people were generally confined to them only led the development of localized culture, making India a diverse geographical area.

The Hunas and other foreign elements were absorbed into the Indian society and cleared the ground for the rise of larger defined units such as Rajputana. Similarly, Bengal, which was earlier divided into two parts viz. Gauda  and Vanga, later the whole region was named after  Vanga.

The inhabitants of the different nations differed in customs, clothing and language. For example, the Kavalayamala  (8th century) notes the existence of 18 major nationalists  and describes  the anthropological  character of 16 peoples.

Development of Vernacular Languages

Though the Sanskrit continued to be used by the ruling class at the higher administrative levels, this language later become complex, verbose and ornate. The Apabhramsha started to differentiate into proto-Hindi, Proto-Bengali, Proto-Rajasthani proto-Gujarati, Proto-Marathi, Proto-Assamese, Proto-Ordya, Proto-Maithili languages.

From the 6^th century onwards, the linguistic variation became very fast because of lack of inter-regional communication and mobility. In the tribal areas, the Brahmanas imposed various forms of Sanskrit on the existing Aryan and Pre-Aryan dialects. The consequential interaction gave rise to regional languages. The migrating Brahmanas also enriched the regional languages. This resulted in the development of regional scripts and regional grammar.

Development of Regional Art & Culture

In the field of art and architecture, this period ushered in a new age marked by regional styles in sculpture and construction of temples, which became particularly prominent in south India from the eighth century onwards.

The post-gupta iconography prominently displays a divine hierarchy, which reflects the pyramidal rank in society.

The Vishnu, Shiva and Durga became the supreme deities, lording over many other divinities of unequal sizes. The Mahayajnas and danas (donations) were gradually replaced by a system known as Puja. Puja was interlinked to the doctrine of Bhakti, which became a distinct feature of medieval religion. Both puja and Bhakti became integral ingredients of tantricism, which arose due to the acculturation of the tribal people through large-scale religious land-grants.