Bubonic plague in Bombay Presidency (1896–1897)

The Bubonic Plague outbreak in the Bombay Presidency (1896–1897) was one of the most devastating public health crises in colonial India. Originating in Bombay (now Mumbai), it quickly spread across western and northern India, resulting in widespread mortality, social upheaval, and administrative interventions. The epidemic marked a turning point in British colonial public health policy and left a deep socio-economic and political impact on the subcontinent.

Background and Origin

The late nineteenth century saw recurring outbreaks of the bubonic plague, a highly contagious and fatal disease caused by the bacterium Yersinia pestis and transmitted primarily through fleas that infested rats. The 1896–1897 epidemic in Bombay formed part of the Third Plague Pandemic, which began in Yunnan, China, in 1855 and spread globally via trade routes.
Bombay, as a major port city and commercial hub of the British Empire, was especially vulnerable due to its dense population, poor sanitation, and extensive maritime connections. The city’s rapid industrialisation and expansion of textile mills had drawn large numbers of migrant workers living in congested chawls (tenement houses), which provided ideal conditions for the disease to spread.
The first officially recorded case in Bombay occurred in September 1896 in the Mandvi district near the docks, where imported grain shipments and rats from plague-affected regions of Hong Kong were believed to have introduced the infection.

Spread and Scale of the Epidemic

From its initial detection in 1896, the plague spread swiftly within Bombay and to other parts of the Bombay Presidency, including Poona (Pune), Surat, Karachi, Ahmedabad, and the Deccan region. By early 1897, the epidemic had assumed alarming proportions.

• Mortality: Contemporary records suggest that between 200,000 and 300,000 people died in the Bombay Presidency within a year of the outbreak, though actual numbers were likely higher due to underreporting.
• Migration: Fear of infection and coercive health measures prompted an exodus of over half the city’s population, severely disrupting trade and industry.
• Transmission: The disease spread via rat-flea vectors, often thriving in grain warehouses, ships, and densely inhabited neighbourhoods. Seasonal monsoon conditions further accelerated the contagion.

The epidemic later extended to Madras, Calcutta, and the Punjab, making it a national crisis by the end of the 1890s.

Medical Understanding and Response

At the time, scientific understanding of plague transmission was limited. Although the bacterium Yersinia pestis had been identified in 1894 by Alexandre Yersin, the role of fleas and rats as vectors was not yet universally accepted.
In Bombay, the government’s initial response was slow and reactive. As mortality rose, the British administration established the Bombay Plague Committee in October 1896 to coordinate control measures. Later, a Plague Research Committee was formed to investigate causes and develop preventive strategies.
Key figures included:

• Dr Waldemar Haffkine, a Russian bacteriologist working in India, who developed the world’s first anti-plague vaccine in 1897. The vaccine was tested at the Byculla Jail in Bombay and later administered widely across India.
• Surgeon-General W. F. Gatacre and Major-General Sir William Gatacre, who oversaw the military and sanitary operations in Bombay.

Government Measures and Public Reaction

The colonial authorities implemented a series of aggressive and often coercive measures to contain the plague, invoking the Epidemic Diseases Act of 1897. These included:

1. Forced Inspections and Quarantines: Individuals suspected of infection were isolated in plague hospitals, while their houses were disinfected or destroyed.
2. Evacuation of Neighbourhoods: Entire localities, particularly slums, were cleared for sanitation operations.
3. House-to-House Searches: Conducted by European soldiers and sanitary inspectors, often violating privacy and religious customs.
4. Travel Restrictions and Health Passes: Passengers were inspected at railway stations and ports; movement between towns was controlled.
5. Disinfection and Rat Extermination Drives: Use of carbolic acid and lime-washing was mandated for houses and streets.

While intended to curb the epidemic, these draconian measures provoked resentment among the Indian population. Forced entry into homes, segregation of men and women, and disregard for religious sensibilities led to widespread hostility.
In Poona (Pune), such resentment culminated in the assassination of W. C. Rand, the British Plague Commissioner, by Indian nationalists Damodar Hari Chapekar and Balkrishna Chapekar in June 1897. This incident highlighted the deep mistrust between the colonial government and Indian society.

Socio-Economic Consequences

The plague had far-reaching economic and demographic consequences:

• Depopulation and Labour Shortage: The flight of workers from Bombay’s mills and docks led to a sharp decline in industrial production and commercial activity.
• Disruption of Trade: Bombay’s maritime trade, particularly in cotton and grain, suffered severely due to quarantine restrictions.
• Decline in Real Estate and Urban Economy: Abandonment of plague-affected areas caused property values to plummet.
• Rural Spread: Returning migrants carried the disease into rural districts, resulting in secondary outbreaks and loss of agricultural productivity.
• Public Health Awareness: The disaster exposed the inadequacy of urban sanitation and prompted reforms in municipal health administration.

Scientific and Institutional Developments

Despite the human tragedy, the plague epidemic stimulated major advances in medical research and public health policy in India.

1. Haffkine’s Plague Vaccine Laboratory was established in Bombay in 1899 (later relocated to Pune and renamed the Haffkine Institute for Training, Research and Testing).
2. The Plague Research Commission (1905–1909) conducted extensive studies on rats and fleas, confirming the transmission mechanisms and laying the foundation for modern epidemiology.
3. The crisis led to the creation of improved sanitary departments and public health acts in British India.
4. It encouraged the professionalisation of Indian medical services and the development of bacteriological research facilities.

Public Health and Urban Reforms

The epidemic exposed the poor sanitary conditions of Indian cities and compelled colonial authorities to undertake urban reforms.

• Municipal Improvements: Enhanced drainage, sewage systems, and housing regulations were introduced in Bombay.
• Health Infrastructure: Establishment of plague hospitals, vaccination centres, and laboratories improved disease surveillance.
• Sanitation Campaigns: Municipal authorities launched cleanliness drives and rat control measures, marking the beginning of systematic urban hygiene in India.

While these reforms improved urban infrastructure, they were also perceived as tools of colonial control, reflecting the British view that Indian habits and housing conditions were the main causes of disease.

Legacy and Historical Significance

The Bubonic Plague of 1896–1897 had enduring effects on India’s public health, politics, and society:

• It demonstrated the tension between colonial medical authority and Indian social customs.
• It catalysed the growth of Indian nationalist sentiment, particularly through reactions to British high-handedness.
• It led to long-term reforms in urban planning, public sanitation, and medical research infrastructure.
• The epidemic also influenced future epidemic responses, including during the influenza pandemic of 1918 and later health crises.