Achievements of Ancient Indians in Physics and Chemistry

Although the earliest applications of basic science took place without involving much theoretical knowledge or insight into these branches of science, there were elements of basic scientific investigation and scientific documentation present in the form of treatises.

Ancient Indians conceive that the universe was made up of compounds consisting of 5 elements or Panchabhutas viz. water, earth, air, fire and ether; and each was considered as a medium of sense perception (taste, smell, feeling, vision and sound).

Atomic theory

Indians certainly knew the existence of atom and molecules long before Greeks. Various schools of thought promoted the idea that matter was composed of atoms that were indivisible and indestructible. Ancient philosophers belonging to Vaiseshik School (propounded by Kanda) elaborated the atomic theory stating that all elements except ether were physically palpable and hence comprised of minuscule particles. The smaller particle that could not be sub-divided was called Paramanu in Sanskrit. This concept was based on logic and philosophy and it lacks empirical basis. While many details of these theories no longer stand the test of scientific validity, there was much in these formulations that was conceptually quite advanced and sophisticated for its time. Samkhya and Vaisheshika schools developed theories on light. Chakrapani suggesting that both sound and light travelled in waves, but that light travelled at a much higher speed. Others imagined light to comprise of minute particles (now understood to be photons) in constant motion and spreading through radiation and diffusion from the original source.

In the field of acoustics Indians achieved great advancements and classified octave (series of tones) into 24 srutis or quarter-tones and their proportions were measured accurately.

Rasayana

Chemistry was called as ‘Rasayan Shasthra’ in ancient India. Indian ideas about chemistry were not confined to abstract level rather they grew by experimentation. In ancient India, chemistry was evidently developed to a significant level. The basis of the various branches of chemistry evolved eventually from the technologies used in ancient civilizations in India. Many medicinal texts such as charaka samhita included Rasayan shasthra which describes itself on chemistry and its practices. There are descriptions of a chemical laboratory in a text called Rasaratna Samuchaya.

In ancient times, the areas of applications of chemistry in India were extracting metals from ores, making pottery and glass, making dyes and pigments, fermenting beer and wine, extracting chemicals from plants for medicine and perfume, rendering fat into soap, and making alloys like bronze.

• The contribution of ancient India in the field of chemistry begins from Alchemy, which means the science of conversion of metals into gold. There are also evidences of plentiful supply of gold, silver and copper.
• Kautilya’s ‘Artha shasthra’ also mentions many practices such as availability of metal ores, its purification etc.
• Nagarjuna, an alchemist, was famous for his efforts which had been concentrated on transforming the base metals into gold. The people even believed that Nagarjuna was in communion with gods and goddesses who had blessed him with the power of changing base metals into gold and the extracting of ‘elixir of life’.
• The Arabs seem to have borrowed the technique of transforming base metals info gold-like metals from India.
• As per findings at Mohenjodaro, the residents of ancient cities at those times were skillful metal workers. Copper and bronze were used for making weapons, tools and vessels or utensils.
• Due to the presence to variety of minerals in India, Ayurveda evolved , which played an important role in the development of iatrochemistry, which means chemistry applied to medicine or chemistry for healing purposes.
• Sushruta, the father of surgery, contributed not only to field of surgery, but also to anaesthesia by administering herbal wines to dull the senses curing surgery. The documentation of his works was later translated to Arabic and European language.
• Earliest distillation of alcohol is said to be associated with the archaeological finds at Taxila. In fact, the ancient name of alcohol is khola, which sounds so similar to it.
• The Vedic Aryans tanned leather, fermented grains and fruits, and dyed scale production of copper, iron and steel, brass, silver and gold and their alloys.
• It is claimed by historian A. L. Basham that a form of gun powder was discovered in ancient India.

Following were the major chemical products that led to the development of chemistry in ancient India:

Bricks and Cement:

• Burnt bricks were manufactured on a large scale for making houses, drains, boundary walls, public bath etc. Also, Gypsum cement had been used in the construction of a well in Mohenjodaro.

Metallurgy

• Metallurgy was an important activity. (Note: we can give examples of metallurgy in Indus Valley Civilization, Vedic period, and also cite example of Iron pillar)

Glass:

• In ancient India, glass (and glass beads) making was quite widespread and a high degree of perfection was achieved in the craft of glass making and decoration.
• The texts of Ramayana, Brhatsamhita, Kautilya’s Arthasatra and Sukranitisara mention the use of glass.
• A number of glass objects were found at Maski in south India , Hastinapur and Taxila . The glass and glazes were coloured by the addition of colouring agents like metal oxides.
• There was a traditional glass factory at Kopia in Basti district of Uttar Pradesh. Glass slag was found at Kolhapur, Nevasa, Paunar and Maheshwar.

Paper:

• As per the Chinese traveller Itsing, paper was known to Indians in the seventh century AD. The main centers of paper making in were Sialkot, Zafarbad, Murshidabad, Ahmedabad, Mysore etc.

Soap

• There were references to soap like substances called Phenaka in the 2nd and 3rd century AD texts like Manusmrti and Yajnavalkyasmrti. However, earliest reference to soap comes from medieval India.
• Ancient Indians used certain plants and their fruits like the soap nuts of Ritha and Sikakai for washing clothes. Fruits like Sriphala and Sarsapa were also used to wash different kinds of clothes.

Dyeing

• A number of classical texts like Atharvaveda mentioned some dyeing materials. Plants and their products like madder, turmeric and safflower were the principal dyeing materials. Orpiment and some insects like lac, cochineal and kermes were the other materials used for dyeing.

Cosmetics and Perfumes

• In Sanskrit literature like in Brhatsamhita of Varahamihira, there have been a large number of references to cosmetics and perfumes. Cosmetics and perfumes making were mainly practised for the purpose of worship, sale and sensual enjoyment.. Gandhayukti gave recipes for making scents. The manufacture of rose water began perhaps in the nineteenth century AD.

Ink

• Ink was known and used in India from fourth century BC. An inkpot, unearthed during the excavations at Taxila provides evidence for the same.
• The ink made from nuts and myrobalans. The recipe for ink was also given in Rasaratnakara of Nityanatha.
• The Ajanta caves displayed some inscriptions that were written with coloured ink, made from chalk, red lead and minium. This ink was used in Malabara and other parts of the country as well.
• Special ink prepared from roasted rice, lampblack, sugar and the juice of plant Kesurte (Verbsina scandens) was used in the Jain manuscripts.

Alcoholic liquors

• Rig-Veda Veda provides the earliest evidence of the use of intoxicants in India, as one entire Mandala is dedicated to Soma in that. Kautilya’s Arthasastra listed a variety of liquors such as Medaka, Prasanna, Asava, Arista, Maireya and Madhu.
• Charaka Samhita also mentioned sources for making various Asavas: cereals, fruits, roots, woods, flowers, stems, leaves, barks of plants and sugar cane. About 60 Tamil names were found in Sangam literature, which suggest that liquors were brewed in south India since the ancient times.